Precious and semi-precious stones, raw. Choosing precious stones for investment: a complete list. Names of gemstones

Along with gold and silver precious and semi gems at all times have been a symbol of wealth and power. It is customary to call precious minerals rare in nature, which have a beautiful appearance after cutting and polishing. And they also emit semi-precious stones - these are minerals that are often found in nature, from which both jewelry and various crafts are made.

Grade of raw materials

There are standards by which the quality of minerals is assessed and their price is set. This is the so-called grade of raw materials. Indicators for assessment are:

• the degree of transparency of the mineral;
• color quality (uniform / clean / pronounced);
• interesting drawing;
• absence (sometimes, on the contrary, - presence) of foreign particles, cracks;
• the size of the mineral;
• strength / durability;
• the rarity of being in nature;
• fashion.

The fact that for one mineral is a disadvantage that greatly underestimates its price, for another is a plus that increases its value. For example, a contraindication for a diamond is a foreign body inside or a crack. Whereas for amber, any of these factors can raise the value of the stone hundreds of times.

Therefore, speaking about precious stones, it is always necessary to clarify the grade of the mineral and take into account its characteristics. Both precious and semi-precious stones have their own varieties and subspecies.

Determination of value

Each institution defines the concept of a gem in its own way. In the legal sense, this is a specific list of natural rocks: emeralds, diamonds, rubies, alexandrites, sapphire and pearls (all - natural origin). Thus, the state clearly defines a valuable natural resource, the turnover of which can be controlled.

Gemologists (specialists in minerals) define the concept of precious stones more broadly, linking the value of a stone with its main characteristics: hardness, transparency and rarity in nature.

Divide semi-precious and semi-precious (non-precious) stones. The first type is the same minerals of natural origin, but inferior in quality to them. They can be opaque, easily broken, often found in nature, etc. Paradoxically, among semi-precious stones there are those that are more expensive than precious ones, for example, red spinel. Therefore, the assignment to the category "sex" is relative and it would be more accurate to call all of it "jewelry".

Ornamental stones are mineral compounds most often used as mosaics, haberdashery, and applied art.

There is no clear distinction between these three categories. In speech, they are often used as synonyms, sometimes mixing two groups into one (precious-ornamental). In Russian there is a good general concept for all minerals, depending on their characteristics - gems.

There are also several classifications of gemstones, although they are generally similar. Most of them are based on the division by cost and purpose.

Precious types of minerals

The most valuable of the precious stones is considered to be a diamond, or in the uncut stage - a diamond. In terms of chemical composition, it is a kind of carbon (or the lead of a simple pencil), it has amazing strength, and after cutting it is beautiful.

Classic gemstone composition:

All gems have one thing in common: rare in nature, high degree of hardness and bright interesting appearance after cutting. They never lose their value, even in times of war.

Semiprecious stones

In total, there are more than a hundred types of this type of stones. Their prevalence in nature determines which semi-precious stones should be included here. Although they are all natural, any of them can be easily obtained, processed and embodied in the form of jewelry.

It is customary to refer to the main group of these stones:

Semi-precious stones are the most popular materials for jewelry and personal use.

Minerals of general use

A separate group includes stones that are widely used in interiors, and not in the jewelry industry. They also have strong magical properties, they can be purchased or given as a decoration:

All of these stones have become famous for their jewelry and crafts. Many luxurious interiors were decorated with natural minerals. For example, everyone has heard of the famous Amber Room, a malachite box.

Jewels in history

In all cultures and at all times magical properties were attributed to natural minerals. Jade is a symbol of life. Amber helps with toothache. Jasper has always been revered in Japan, and turquoise in Russia. Products made from semi-precious stones are even more popular because they are available to a wide range of people.

No matter how fashion changes, there is always a place for jewelry. No matter what happens to the economy, and no matter what era comes, natural minerals never lose their value.

Stones are natural and synthetic. Natural stones can be of mineral or organic origin.

In jewelry practice and in trade, stones are classified into precious, semi-precious and ornamental.

TO precious stones include stones of mineral origin - very hard, transparent: diamonds, emeralds, rubies, sapphires; organic origin - pearls.

For precious stones, the weight unit is a carat equal to 0.2 g, and for all other stones, a gram.

Diamond- the hardest stone; a cut diamond is called a "diamond". Depending on the number of defects, diamonds are divided into 8 groups, the most valuable diamonds of "pure water".

Emerald(from the Greek "smaragdos" - hard) - a fragile stone of grassy green color.

Ruby(from the Latin “rudech” - red) is a variety of red corundum mineral.

Sapphire(from the Greek "sapphire" - blue) - a transparent variety of corundum of various colors - from dark blue to pale blue. Natural sapphire is considered a rare stone, although it is valued less than ruby.

Pearl- a precious stone of organic origin, formed in the shells of sea and river molluscs. Pearl color is from white to black. The larger the pearl grain, the higher its value.

Semiprecious stones. Semi-precious stones are transparent, colorless or colored stones. The unit of mass for semi-precious stones is a gram. Semiprecious stones include:

siaexandrite- under different lighting changes color from dense green to crimson red;

chrysolite - transparent mineral from yellowish-green to deep green, the stone is rather rare;

turquoise(from Persian, "firyuza" - a stone of happiness) - an opaque mineral of heavenly blue, goes well with silver;

Garnet- solid, can be transparent, translucent and opaque, reddish shades (more than 30). Pomegranate is used both as a base and as inserts for jewelry (bracelets, beads, necklaces, etc.);

topaz- the stone is heavy, hard, transparent, mostly yellowish, but there are also other shades.

Semiprecious stones also include spinel, amethyst, aquamarine, beryl, tourmaline, zircon, hyacinth, opal, moonstone, rock crystal, smoky quartz and stones of organic origin - amber, coral.

Amber Is a fossil resin from conifers from the Tertiary period. Transparent amber with inclusions of insects and plant particles is prized. Amber is used to make beads, brooches, earrings, bracelets, etc.

Coral Is a calcareous mass of skeletons of invertebrates of marine animals. Coral comes in pink-white, white, and reddish-colored shades. Coral is a valuable material for making earrings, necklaces, beads, jewelry inserts.

Ornamental stones. Ornamental stones are opaque minerals or slightly translucent, inferior in hardness to semi-precious stones. Ornamental stones have beautiful patterns and colors, therefore they are widely used in the jewelry industry.

Chalcedony- solid ornamental stone, grayish-blue-boy color. There are many varieties of chalcedony.

Carnelian - a kind of reddish chalcedony (quartz group).

Agate- has a volcanic origin, is a multi-colored-patterned variety of chalcedony.

Onyx - a variety of multi-colored agate, the ancient Greeks and Romans used to carve cameos and amulets.

Cat's eye - agate variety different shades; cut in cabochon as it moves, the stone gives a shimmer and play reminiscent of a cat's eye.

Jasper it can be of a very varied color of various shades, more often it is painted in brick-red or brown color. Jasper is used as a facing, decorative material for columns, lamps, etc.

Malachite- an opaque mineral containing up to 57% copper, has a green color of various shades. Malachite is a stone of medium hardness; it has a complex beautiful pattern on the cut.

In the production of jewelry, artificial stones are used - crystals. Some of them are called synthetic.

Synthetic emerald has the characteristic features of a natural gem.

Cubic zirconia - got its name from the first four initial letters of the name of the institute where it was created (Physics Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR). The starting material for fianite is mainly zirconium and hafnium oxide.

Various decorative and ornamental materials are used in the production of jewelry: glass, bone, horn, papier-mâché, plastics, etc.

General classification of gemstones

For natural gemstones, there are many different classifications, since specialists in various fields distinguish mainly those characteristics of stones that are most convenient for carrying out a particular activity.

The classification of mineral raw materials can be carried out according to the following criteria: origin, chemical composition, crystallographic parameters of the structure of the crystal lattice, size, etc.

The classification of cut jewelry stones can also be carried out according to various insubordinate characteristics: crystallographic characteristics, physical properties, cost, medicinal properties (in Europe, eastern and western stones), purpose (for jewelry and products), processing methods, etc.

The first scientifically grounded classification of gemstones was proposed by the German scientist K. Kluge (1860), who divided gemstones into two groups and five classes: truly precious and semi-precious stones. In the first group he classified stones of I, II and III classes, in the second - IV and V classes.

First group

Class I: diamond, corundum, chrysoberyl, spinel.

Class II: zircon, beryl, topaz, tourmaline, garnet, noble opal.

III class: cordierite, vesuvian, chrysolite, axinite, kpanite, staurolite, andalusite, xpastolite, epidote, turquoise.

Second group

IV class: quartz, chalcedony, feldspars, obsidian, lapis lazuli, diopside, fluorite, amber.

Grade V: jadeite, jade, serpentine, agalmatolite, satin spar, marble, selenite, alabaster, malachite, pyrite, rhodochrosite, hematite.

In 1896 M. Bauer proposed a new classification of gemstones, which was popular among jewelers and gemologists. In Soviet times, M. Bauer's classification was reviewed and supplemented by Academician A.E. Fersman (table). The classification of M. Bauer - AE Fersman was used for a long time both in the USSR and abroad. All gemstones have been categorized into gems, colored semi-precious stones and organic gemstones. The first two groups, in turn, are divided into three subgroups, which in the classification of these authors are called "order".

Classification M. Bauer - A. E. Fersman

Group	Order	Name of stones
		Diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, alexandrite, noble spinel, euclase
		Topaz, aquamarine, beryl, red tourmaline, blood amethyst, almandine, uvarovite, jadeite, noble opal, zircon
Precious (gems)		Garnet, cordierite, kyanite, epidote, dioptase, turquoise, variscite, green tourmaline, rock crystal, smoky quartz, light amethyst, chalcedony, agate, carnelian, heliotrope, chrysoprase, semiopal, sunstone, moonstone, labradorite, nepheline, sodalite, obsidian, titanite, benitoite, prehnite, andalusite, diopside, scapolite, thomsonite, hematite, pyrite, cassiterite, quarn with gold

Due to changes in the market value of stones, the scale of production, etc., the classification given below (table) required some adjustment. In 1973 E. Ya. Kievlenko proposed a modified classification of M. Bauer - A. E. Fersman (table).

Consideration of the classifications of gem stones proposed above shows that as knowledge about gemstones was accumulated, the classifications of gem stones were supplemented and refined. The most successful is the division of stones into jewelry, jewelry and ornamental and ornamental, which reflects the main feature of the classification - purpose.

Thus, the classification of gem stones proposed by E. Ya. Kievlenko and based on the cost and purpose of gem minerals is the most complete, but it is not devoid of some contradictions.

For example, in 1978 a mineral called charoite was discovered (Chara river, Chita region), which became one of the most popular stones both in the USSR and abroad. It is used as inserts in rings, bracelets and earrings, as well as for making caskets, vases, bowls and writing instruments. The texture of the mineral, color, transitions of shades from blue to lilac and white, pearlescent shine look great in products with sufficiently large flat or oval-round surfaces. The richness of new deposits of charoite makes it possible to massively produce many items, however, the mineral is absent in the classification of E. Ya. Kievlenko, since it was discovered later.

The same can be said about the simbirtzite discovered in 1985, named after its only deposit near the city of Ulyanovsk (Simbirsk).

Classification E. Ya.Kievlenko

		Name of stones
Jewelry (precious stones)		Ruby, emerald, diamond, sapphire blue Alexandrite orange, green and purple sapphire, noble black opal, noble jadeite Demantoid, spinel, noble white and fire opal, aquamarine, topaz, rhodolite, tourmaline Chrysolite, zircon, yellow, green and pink beryl, kunzite, turquoise, amethyst, pyrope, almandine, moon and sun stone, chrysoprase, citrine
Jewelry ornamental		Lapis lazuli, jadeite, jade, malachite, charoite, amber, rock crystal (smoky and colorless) Agate, amazonite, blood-hematite, rhodonite, opaque iridescent feldspars (belomorite, etc.), irrigating obsidian, epidot-garnet and vesuvian rodingids (jades)
Ornamental		Jasper, marble onyx, obsidian, jet, petrified wood, listvenite, patterned flint, graphic pegmatite, fluorite, aventurine quartzite, selenite, agalmatolite, colored marble, etc.

Therefore, the practical work of a commodity expert is associated with the need to study the properties of minerals of each group and newly discovered ones in order to assign new materials to one or another position. In addition, it is necessary to study the internal classification of each of the minerals included in the table, since, for example, for opals and garnets, the name of the stone does not yet indicate the absolute belonging of all garnets and opals to the precious group.

An example is the internal classification of garnets.

I order - pyrope (dark red), almandine (violet red), uvarovite (emerald green);

II order - spessartine, grossular, andradite.

However, a variety of andradite (demantoid) belongs to the first order garnets. It is one of the most valuable minerals in the pomegranate group and is green in color with various shades.

It is even more difficult to deal with minerals of the opal group. All opals are subdivided into ordinary colorless without irisation (iridescent play of light) and noble ones with irisation. So, fire (solar) and black opal with iridescence are noble stones, therefore they are, of course, precious jewelry minerals. Cacholong - from the group of opals without irisation, is classified as jewelry and ornamental stones, figurines, caskets, vases, etc. are made from it. Praz, hyalite, hydrophane, etc. also belong to base opals.

There are varieties of corundum belonging to the II and III orders of precious stones. So, transparent rubies and sapphires are precious stones of the 1st order, and the opaque ones are referred to the III order. Translucent rubies and sapphires with the effect of asterism (star stones) are stones of the II order.

Spinel is referred to the group of jewelry (precious) stones of the III order, but we are talking only about “noble” spinel of red and dark red color, which in ancient Russia was called “lal”. Other types of spinel are referred to as stones of the 4th order.

Diamond, in accordance with its purpose, is divided into jewelry and technical (board). Board - these are microscopic diamonds, devoid of clearly expressed color, opaque, they are crushed and used as an abrasive powder. There is a classification of technical diamond. Here are some of its varieties: ballas - radial-radiant aggregates with a rounded shape, without inclusions; carbonado is a mixture of microcrystalline diamond and amorphous silica. The classification of E. Ya. Kievlenko includes only gem-quality diamonds.

High price - characteristic feature truly precious stones. Subjective assessment of beauty, color, play of the stone - all this leads to the fact that jewelry with high aesthetic properties is also made from ornamental stones.

An equally important indicator can be the scale of the discovered deposits of a particular stone, which affects the availability and cost.

In production, the most convenient is the technological classification developed by the All-Russian Research Institute of the Jewelery Industry, which is based on the feature of the unity (or similarity) of stone processing methods. In it, all jewelry and ornamental stones are divided into three types: jewelry, jewelry and ornamental and ornamental, which, in turn, are subdivided into subtypes and groups in terms of transparency, hardness (according to the Mohs scale) and other properties (table).

Technological classification of gemstones

	Subtype	Group	Name of stones
I. Gemstones	Subtype 1-1. Transparent stones	Group 1-1-1. Hardness 10
		Group 1-1-2. Hardness 7-10	Corundum, beryl, tourmaline, garnet, chrysoberyl, spinel, topaz, quartz single crystals, euclase, phenakite, zircon, cordierite, andalusite, staurolite

I. Gemstones	Subtype 1-1. Transparent stones	Group 1-1-3. Hardness less than 7, up to 5	Spodumene, chrysolite, kyanite, dioptase, brazilianite, tanzanite, chromium diopside, apatite, benitoite, axinite, scapolite, thomsonite, danburite, ulexite, cassiterite, gambergite, actinolite, green obsidian
		Group 1-1-4. Hardness less than 5	Sphalerite, fluorite, brucite, zincite, scheelite
	Subtype 1-2.	Group 1-2-1. Homogeneous	Blood hematite, pyrite, cobaltin, psilomelan
	Opaque, sparkling stones	Group 1-2-2. Drawn	Hematite-goethite glass head, cryptomelane-hollandite glass head
	Subtype 1-3. Translucent stones	Group 1-3-1. Brightly colored	Carnelian, chrysoprase, chloropal, rose quartz, colored semi-opals, smithsonite, prehnite, zoisite, translucent jadeite
		Group 1-3-2. With a pattern or pretty inclusions	Agate, hairy, flywheel, onyx (sardonyx, carneolonyx)
		Group 1-3-3. Without drawing and color painting	Chalcedony, semi-opal, cacholong
		Group 1-3-4. Pseudochroic with a certain orientation	Noble opal, moonstone, iridescent obsidian
	Subtype 1-4. Opaque matte with a beautiful color and dense surface texture	Group 1-4-1. Applicable products with subsequent processing	Turquoise, variscite, coral
		Group 1-4-2. Naturally applied

Type II. Jewelry and semi-precious stones	Subtype II-1. Viscous stones, hardness over 6	Group II -1-1.	Jade, jadeite and their hard natural imitations, garnet-chlorite rock, xenotlite, fibrolite
	Subtype II-2. Stones of medium viscosity, hardness 5-6	Group II-2-1. Brightly colored	Lapis lazuli, rhodonite, amazonite, jasper, unakite (epidote and potassium feldspar aggregate), charoite
		Group II-2-2. Drawn	Petrified wood, graphic pegmatite, patterned flint, jasper, obsidian, heliotrope, perilivt
		Group II-2-3. Pseudochroic	Belomorite, falcon and tiger's eyes, silvery obsidian, aventurine, mother of pearl
		Group II-2-4. Naturally applied	Subgroup II -2-4 a. Massive stones: kidneys of chalcedony, smithsonite, jade. Subgroup II-2-4 b. Crusts and build-ups: amethyst and quartz brushes, uvarovite crusts, dendrites of manganese minerals, native copper and silver
	Subtype II-3. Small and medium hard stones	Group II-3-2. Cold processed	Malachite, azurite, serpentine, anthracite
Type III. Ornamental stones	Subtype III-I. Hardness more than 5	Group III-1-1. Glassy	Obsidians, jasper, hornfelses, microquartzites, glandular hornfelses
		Group III-1-2. Heterogeneous rocks and mineral aggregates	Subgroup III-1-2 a. Icy quartz, quartzite taganai, amazonite granite. Subgroup III-1-2 b. Peridotites, pyroxenites, hedenbergite skarn.

			Subgroup III-1-2 d. Eclogite, garnet gneiss, tourmaline-bearing rocks. Subgroup III-1-2 f. Granitoids, nepheline syenites, labradorite, porphyries, etc.
	Subtype III-2. Hardness 5 to 3	Group III-2-1. Translucent	Aragonite and calcite onyx, fluorite
		Group III-2-2. Opaque	Marble, ophiocalcite, anhydrite, coil, chlorite-serpentine rock
	Subtype III-3. Soft, hardness less than 3	Group III-3-1. Translucent	Alabaster, selenite, halite
		Group III-3-2. Opaque	Graphite, talcochlorite, pyrophyllite, brucite, steatite

However, for examination, this classification is the least convenient, since it does not take into account cost characteristics. So, for example, type I - gemstones - includes precious stones of high value (diamonds, corundum, beryl) and ornamental stones of relatively low cost (fluorite, hematite, pyrite, apatite, obsidian green, jadeite, cacholong, chalcedony and a number of others) ...

According to the classification adopted in the retail price lists and purchase price lists, natural stones are divided into precious, semi-precious and semi-precious stones.

Precious and semi-precious stones are the most expensive. They have a number of specific properties that determine their special visual appeal: transparency, shine, color, light refraction, dispersion, and others. In addition, their low prevalence and originality makes them even more attractive. The market value of gemstones depends both on the merit of the stone itself and on the influence of fashion.

The main distinguishing feature of ornamental stones is their beautiful color or intricate decorative pattern. Their advantages are best manifested in stone-cut products with polished surfaces (vases, boxes, candlesticks, etc.). Due to the variety of shades and decor, ornamental stones can be used for artistic mosaic work, as well as as an architectural and facing material.

To regulate foreign trade operations, a special classification is used, presented in the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity of the Russian Federation. In accordance with the TN VED RF, jewelry stones belong to group 71. (Section XIV) “Natural or cultured pearls, precious or semi-precious stones, precious metals, metals clad with precious metals, and products from them; bijouterie; coins "and occupy the following headings:

7101 - Natural or cultured pearls, worked or unprocessed, sorted or unsorted, but not strung, unset and unsecured; natural or cultured pearls, temporarily strung for ease of transport.

7102 - Diamonds, whether or not worked, but unset or loose.

7103 - Precious (other than diamonds) and semi-precious stones, worked or unworked, sorted or unsorted, but not finished, unset and unset; unsorted precious stones (except diamonds) and semi-precious stones temporarily strung for ease of transportation.

7104 - Precious or semi-precious stones, man-made or reconstructed, worked or unworked, sorted or unsorted, but not knitted, unset and unset; unsorted artificial or reconstructed precious or semi-precious stones temporarily strung for ease of transport.

7105 - Crumb and powder of natural or artificial precious or semi-precious stones.

It must also be borne in mind that the value of the stone (and hence the price) in different time among different peoples it was associated with their religious and national characteristics. Some stones were considered medicinal. So, in India, the ruby ​​is considered a sacred stone, a rare Indian will decide to sell a previously acquired ruby. Turquoise is very popular in the Muslim world. The Persians considered pomegranates to be royal stones, carved the profile of the ruler on the surface of the stone, and wore it as an amulet to protect them from accidents during travel. Carnelian in the 5th century in Cyprus it was used to treat tumors and wounds from the sword. In Russia, it was believed that carnelians contribute to wealth, give their owner strength, especially creative ones. Large Golden ring with a carved carnelian insert was the favorite talisman of Alexander Pushkin. The poet wrote about this stone as follows:

"Dear friend! From crime

From new wounds of the heart

From treason, from oblivion Will keep my talisman! "

The list of examples of the mystical and healing properties of various stones can be endless, but, in spite of everything, the main feature of any classification is the purpose, which should determine the degree of preference for a particular stone in a product.

Characteristics of precious stones

Diamond is a crystalline carbon, the most common form of crystals is an octahedron; besides this, a cube, rhombododecahedron, or hexatetrahedron are possible. In synthetic diamonds, you can also observe a combination of an octahedron and a cube, that is, the so-called cubo-octahedron. The name of the diamond comes from the Greek "adamas" - irresistible, indestructible. This amazing mineral has been known to people for over five thousand years. However, to this day, he attracts close attention. Describing a diamond, you can use the word "most" dozens of times - the hardest, most wear-resistant, most heat-conducting, most brilliant, most expensive, etc.

A pure diamond is transparent, colorless, however, diamonds of so-called fancy colors can be found: pink, orange, yellow, green, blue, black and brown. The presence of color is due to defects in the crystal lattice of the mineral, when carbon atoms replace some other chemical elements. For example, the presence of nitrogen gives a brown tint, boron gives a blue. Black color can appear either with a large number of dark-colored inclusions (for example, graphite), or with the presence of sulfide compounds.

Mohs hardness - 10.

Density - 3.52 g / cm 3.

Brilliance is diamond.

Refractive index - 2.417.

Dispersion - 0.025.

Cleavage is high, along the octahedron.

Diamonds are divided into jewelry and technical. The main deposits are Namibia, Russia, Australia, South Africa, Brazil, India, Canada.

Beryls are silicates of beryllium and aluminum (Be 3 Al 2 (Si 6 O l6)). The most common crystal shape is a prism or pyramid. Pure beryl is colorless (goshenite), but berryl and aluminum can be replaced by various chemical elements (lithium, cesium, sodium, iron, fluorine, etc.), which leads to a wide palette of colors found in beryls.

Depending on the color, the following types of beryl are distinguished:

a) aquamarine (Fe 2+ / Fe 3 +) - blue, light greenish blue, bluish green. The main deposits are Brazil, Mozambique, Nigeria, Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India;

b) emerald (Cr 3 +) - from grassy green to dark green. The main deposits are Colombia, Brazil, Zambia, Zimbabwe, India, Pakistan, Russia;

c) vorobievite or morganite (Mn 3+) - pink. The main deposits are Afghanistan, Madagascar;

d) heliodor (Fe 3+) - yellow, yellow-green. The main deposits are Namibia, Madagascar;

e) goshenite - colorless. The main deposits are Brazil, USA.

Sometimes emeralds, aquamarines and morganites with a "cat's eye" effect and with asterism (star effect) can be found. The star effect is extremely rare in beryls, but it can be seen, for example, in the beryls of Siberia, the dark brown beryls of Brazil, and the black beryls of Mozambique. The appearance of the six-rayed star effect in beryl is associated with oriented inclusions of the mineral ilmenite.

Basic physical characteristics:

Mohs hardness - from 7.5 to 8.

Density - 2.68-2.87 g / cm 3.

The shine is glassy.

Refractive index - n e = 1.562-1.593,

n 0 = 1.568-1.604.

Birefringence - from -0.004 to -0.010.

Dispersion - 0.009-0.013.

Turquoise is a basic copper and aluminum phosphate containing crystallization water. The name comes from the Persian "firuza", which means "flower". Crystals are extremely rare and only in certain deposits, for example, in the state of Virginia (USA). Turquoise is opaque, but it can show through in thin layers. Color - from bright, sky-blue to apple-green and greenish-brown. The blue color is provided by the presence of copper ions; when copper is replaced by iron or chromium ions, green shades are enhanced. Often brown or black streaks can be seen on turquoise. Turquoise can discolor (chalk) with prolonged exposure to the sun. Over time or under the influence of alcohols, perfumes, aromatic oils, fats, and soap suds, turquoise "grows old", loses its luster and acquires a greenish-brown color.

Basic physical characteristics:

Mohs hardness - 5 to 6.

Density - 2.76 (2.30 -2.85) g / cm 3

The gloss is waxy.

Refractive index - 1, 610.

Birefringence - 0.040.

The main deposits are Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan, Peru, USA, Mexico, Tanzania.

Pomegranates. The name comes from the Latin granum - grain. The most common crystal form is the rhombododecahedron. Garnets are widespread in nature, but gem-quality samples are very rare, since the grains of garnets are very small. They are silicates of aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, manganese, chromium, less often titanium. Most often they are transparent or translucent. Mohs hardness - from 7 to 7.5. Most garnets have a glassy luster. Physical properties are varied (table).

The main representatives of the garnet group and their main physical properties

	Chemical formula	Colour	Density, g / cm 3	Coefficient refractions
	Mg 3 Al 2 (SiO 4) 3	red, dark red
Almandine	Fe 3 Al 2 (SiO 4) 3	red with purple over color
Spessartine	Mn 3 Al 2 (SiO 4) 3	red, red-brown, red-brown, red-orange
Grossular	Ca 3 Al 2 (SiO 4) 3	yellow, yellow-green, green
Uvarovite	Ca 3 Fe 2 (SiO 4) 3	emerald
Demantoid	Ca 3 Cr 2 (SiO 4) 3	grassy to dark green
	Ca 3 Ti 2 (SiO 4) 3

Main deposits:

a) almandine (carbuncle, noble garnet) - India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Russia;

b) pyrope (similar to fire) Australia, Norway, Russia (Yakutia), South Africa, USA, Czech Republic (pyrope has been mined in the Central Bohemian mountains from the 13th century to the present);

c) spessartine - Namibia, Nigeria, Tanzania, Pakistan, USA;

d) grossular (Pakistani emerald) - Tanzania, Kenya, Mexico, India;

e) uvarovite (Ural emerald) - was first discovered in the middle of the 19th century. in the Urals, later some samples were found in the USA, Finland and Canada;

f) demantoid - Russia, Namibia, Italy;

g) melanitis - USA, Mexico.

Corundum- aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3), which forms various crystal lattices and has a wide palette of colors. Pure corundum (leucosapphire) is colorless and transparent. Partial substitution of chromium ions in the crystal lattice of aluminum ions colors the crystal red (ruby) and pink (pink corundum). Partial substitution with titanium and ferrous iron gives blue (sapphire) and blue (blue corundum) coloration. The presence of ferric iron causes yellow and green coloration (yellow and greenish corundum); chromium and ferric iron - orange and pink-orange (padparadscha). There are star rubies and sapphires (asterics) with six and twelve-pointed stars. Asterism in these stones is due to inclusions of rutile needle crystals. It is very rare to find corundums with a "cat's eye" effect. Even less common are chameleon corundums (sapphires), which are blue in daylight, and red-blue to red in the evening. Among the minerals, corundum takes the second place in hardness and abrasiveness after diamond. In terms of optical properties (brilliance, light refraction and dispersion), they are also inferior to diamond, but no stone in color can compare with blue sapphire or fiery red ruby.

Basic physical characteristics:

Mohs hardness - 9.

Density - 3.90 - 4.05 g / cm 3

The shine is glassy.

Refractive index - n e = 1.762 (1.758-1.770),

n o = 1.770 (1.766-1.780).

Dispersion - 0.011.

Cleavage is absent.

Main deposits:

ruby - Burma, Vietnam, Thailand, Tanzania, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Kenya, Colombia;

sapphire - Australia, Burma, India, Cambodia, USA, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Nigeria, Madagascar.

Quartz group- silicon dioxide (SiO2), the most common form of crystals is a prism. Among all minerals, quartz (along with feldspars) is the most common in nature. It occurs in both well-formed crystals and druses. In addition, rocks are used in jewelry, consisting mainly of quartz - jasper and quartzite. All the numerous varieties of quartz can be divided into crystalline (macrocrystalline) and cryptocrystalline (micro- and cryptocrystalline). Pure crystalline quartz (rock crystal) is colorless, transparent or milky white. Numerous variations in the color of quartz can be caused by: the presence of color centers (due to the replacement of Si 4+ with other chemical elements), the presence of certain optical effects, or the presence of inclusions (table).

The main representatives of the quartz group

Mineral name	Colour	Reasons for coloring
Macrocrystalline
Rhinestone	colorless	-
Amethyst	Violet	Fe 4+ - centers
Smoky quartz (morion)	smoky black smoky brown	АlО 4 + electron
Rose quartz	pink	Ti 3+ - centers
Citrine	lemon yellow	Аl O4 - centers
Micro- and cryptocrystalline
Aventurine	green, yellow-green, yellow-brown	inclusions
Chrysoprase	green	nickel silicate inclusions
Cornelian	orange, red, brown	inclusions of some minerals: hematite, gotite, etc.
Heliotrope	green with red spots	inclusions of chlorides of various metals and hematite
Onyx	zone-colored, yellow, green, brown	manganese oxide inclusions
Agate		varied
Jasper	almost all colors, zone-colored	varied

Zone-colored quartz can be found in nature. For example, the color of smoky quartz is due to the fact that trivalent aluminum in the crystal lattice is replaced by the so-called "morion" center (AlO 4 + electron). This color is stable at temperatures not exceeding 180 ° C. With more high temperatures the reverse substitution takes place, and the quartz is discolored again. Thus, there are partially dark, partially colorless transparent crystals, as well as crystals with zonal varying degrees of dark color.

There are quartz crystals with iridescence effect: cat's eye (green), bull's eye (red, brown), tiger's eye (yellow) and hawk's eye (gray, black).

Sometimes (very rarely) in quartz one can observe the effect of asterism in the form of a six-pointed star, which is due to the presence of needle-like inclusions of minerals such as gotite, rutile or syllmanite.

The presence of macroinclusions of various natures, which form certain patterns inside the crystal, is quite common for quartz. For example, variously oriented rutile crystals within a rock crystal can create a so-called "frosty pattern"; needle-like inclusions of hematite - a pattern of parallel lines (the so-called "legs of beetles"); inclusions of metal chlorites (green), manganese oxide (black) and hematite (red, brown) are capable of creating a pattern known as "mossy".

The chameleon effect is seen in quartz rather as an exception. However, the "Russian amethysts" from the Murzinka deposit (Ural) gained fame and worldwide recognition precisely for their ability to change color from violet (daylight) to rich wine-red (artificial lighting).

Basic physical characteristics:

Since quartz is one of the most widespread minerals on Earth, it is quite difficult to identify the main deposits - quartz is found all over the world. Brazil (amethysts, rock crystal, citrine, smoky quartz (morion, rauchtopaz), agates) can be called one of the most significant suppliers of jewelry quartz for the world market. Also from the South American states can be called Uruguay (amethysts, agates) and Bolivia (amethysts, citrines). On the African continent, Zambia has one of the largest deposits of amethysts in the world, Namibia has many different deposits (rock crystal, smoky quartz, citrine, rose quartz, amethysts and agates). Rich deposits are also found in South Africa (rock crystal, smoky quartz, citrine, amethysts, agates, carnelian, heliotrope and chrysoprase) and Madagascar (rock crystal, smoky quartz, amethyst, citrine, rose quartz, agates, aventurines and jasper). In Asia, the most significant mining of quartz is carried out in India (amethysts, agates, heliotropes, aventurines). Among European countries, one can name Poland (the largest deposit of chrysoprase in the world) and Germany (amethysts, agates and jasper have been mined in the Idar-Oberstein region since the 14th century). For almost 200 years (until the middle of the 20th century) Russia was the world's largest supplier of amethysts to the world market; there are deposits of all varieties of the quartz group on the territory of Russia.

Opal consists of silica and water (SiO 2 - nH 2O). Over time and with heating, crystallization water can be lost, which leads to the cloudiness of the stone. The color of noble opal is white, gray or black, and the main advantage is opalescence, i.e. the ability to repeatedly scatter incident light.

Noble opals are divided into:

a) white opal - white base with iridescence;

b) black opal - a dark base with iridescence;

c) fire opal (or solar) - transparent and translucent, reddish or orange, opalescent, sometimes with iridescence;

d) cat's eye (a very rare and most expensive variety) - bright green and greenish with concentric zonal opalescence;

e) royal opal - with a dark red or bronze core, an emerald green border and an unpainted outer zone;

f) girazol-translucent bluish or bluish-white opal with reddish-golden opalescence.

In addition, there are ordinary (non-noble) opals that do not possess opalescence. For example, cacholong is a light, porcelain-like opal. Opals colored in layers are called opal-agates or opal-onyx.

Basic physical characteristics:

Mohs hardness - from 5.5 to 6.5.

Density - 1.97-2.22 g / cm 3.

The shine is glassy.

Refractive index - 1.450 (1.370-1.470).

The main deposits are Australia (95% of the world production of opals), Peru, Kazakhstan, Mexico, Russia, USA, Slovakia.

Topaz- fluorinated aluminum silicate (Al 2 (FOH) SiO 4). There is an assumption that the name of the mineral comes from the Sanskrit "tapas" - fire. In Russia, topaz was called "Siberian diamonds". The most ancient jewelry found at one of the sites of the most ancient man in the Urals is a product made of rock crystal and topaz. Topaz is characterized by a special inner play of light, its lightness and transparency resembles dew drops.

The color of topaz is very diverse: yellow, wine, honey and golden yellow, blue, bluish green, green, pink, red (Brazilian rubies), purple, absolutely colorless stones are rarely found. Topaz crystals can have a cat's eye effect. Sometimes topaz exhibits a non-uniform color, for example, in the central part the crystal is colored blue, and on the outer edges it is pinkish-yellow. In addition, topaz has the ability to change its color. When heated, brown and yellow topaz turns pink, colorless - as a result of UV irradiation - brown, and when simultaneously exposed to UV irradiation and temperature - sky blue.

Basic physical characteristics:

Mohs hardness - 8.

Density - 3.52-3.57 g / cm 3.

The shine is glassy.

Refractive index - n x = 1.606-1.635,

n y = 1.609-1.637,

n z = 1.616-1.644.

Birefringence 0.008 to 0.010.

Dispersion - 0.008.

Cleavage is cube-perfect.

Topazes from Brazil and Russia are best known (the largest topaz weighing 32 kg was found). Deposits are also found in Australia, Burma, Pakistan, USA, Japan.

Rauchtopaz does not belong to the group of topaz, since it is smoky quartz - a representative of the quartz group.

Tourmaline is a complex borosilicate of aluminum of alkali metals (lithium, sodium), as well as calcium, magnesium, manganese and iron. Contains water and fluoride. Tourmalines enriched with alkali metals are usually colorless. However, the popularity of tourmaline is associated with the beauty of the varied colors of its various transparent varieties:

a) rubellite - pink or red;

b) sibirite - cherry red;

c) indigolite - blue or light blue;

d) verdelite - green;

e) Dravite - brown, yellow and brown;

f) achroite - colorless;

g) sherl - black.

There are tourmalines with the effect of pleochroism (two shades of the main color in one crystal), as well as with asterism (very rare). Asterism is observed in green tourmalines and is caused, as a rule, by the presence of thin channels in the stone filled with gas-liquid inclusions.

Basic physical characteristics:

Mohs hardness - from 7 to 7.5.

Density - 3.05 (2.90-3.40) g / cm 3.

The shine is glassy.

Refractive index - n e = 1.620 (1.614-1.639),

n about - 1.640 (1.634-1.666).

Birefringence - 0.020 (0.014-0.032).

Dispersion - 0.009-0.011.

Cleavage is absent.

The main deposits are Burma, Brazil, Namibia, Russia, USA, Sri Lanka, Afghanistan.

Zircon is a zirconium silicate (Zr (SiO 4)). According to their optical properties, zircons are divided into three types:

1) Siamese diamonds (yellow, straw yellow and smoky zircons);

2) hyacinths (red, yellow-orange, crimson-orange, brown-red and brown zircons);

h) colorless and bluish zircons. They are sometimes used as imitation diamonds.

Basic physical characteristics:

Mohs hardness - from 6.5 to 7.5.

Density - 3.91 - 4.73 g / cm 3.

The shine is glassy.

Refractive index - n e = 1.923-1.960,

n o = 1.968-2.015.

Birefringence - 0.045-0.055.

Dispersion - 0.022.

The main deposits are Vietnam, Kampuchea, Madagascar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Tanzania.

Spinels are magnesium aluminate (MgAl 2O3), a typical crystal form is an octahedron. Spinels can have a wide variety of colors: all shades of pink and red, blue, light blue, green, yellow, brown, violet, orange, lilac, purple, dark brown (ceylonite), black. There is a colorless spinel, spinel with alexandrite effect, with asterism in the form of four and six-pointed stars. In ancient times, red spinel was considered a ruby, but in its structure and basic physical properties it differs from corundum, for example, its hardness, density and refractive index are slightly lower.

Basic physical characteristics:

Mohs hardness - 8.

Density - 3.54-3.90 g / cm 3.

The shine is glassy.

Refractive index - 1.718 (1.711-1.742).

Birefringence - from -0.007 to -0.010.

Dispersion - 0.011.

Cleavage is perfect.

The main deposits are Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Vietnam, Burma, India, Madagascar, Tanzania, Thailand, Sri Lanka.

Properties of jewelry stones

Many gemstones have the same or similar characteristics. So, for example, among transparent stones one can distinguish groups of the same color - green, red, etc. Therefore, it is difficult to determine the nature of the stone only by color and transparency. To assign a mineral to a particular type, special diagnostics are carried out based on the determination of a number of physical, chemical and morphological (crystallographic) indicators.

The most important are physical indicators, which include color, gloss, transparency, refraction and birefringence, dispersion, luminescence, hardness and density.

Gemstone Color Color is one of the most characteristic distinguishing features of most minerals. The color of the main minerals is presented in table.

Color of gemstones

Transparent and translucent
			Vorobievit
	Rhinestone
			Morganite
	Leucosapphire
			Rose quartz
	Almandine		Rubellite
	Fire opal
			Tourmaline
			Verdelite
			Grossular
Orange	Podparadscha		Demantoid
	Cornelian
Brown	Hessonite		Tsavorite
	Morien (Rauchtopaz)		Tourmaline
	Spessartine		Uvarovite
Violet	Almandine		Chrysolite
			Chrysoberyl
			Chromdiopside
	Tanzanite		Aquamarine
			Tanzinite

	Heliodor
	Hessonite
	Grossular		Benitoite
			Tanzanite
Opaque and translucent in thin layers
	Anhydrite
	Cacholong
			Rhodochrosite
		Brown	Aventurine
			Bulls-eye
	Cat's eye		Obsidian
			Tiger's Eye
			Amazonite
			Heliotrope
Violet
			Chalcedony
			Chrysoprase
	Obsidian

It is known that visible light consists of seven pure colors, differing in wavelengths from 380 to 740 nm. The reason for the diverse coloration is the unequal degree of reflection and absorption of different waves of the light spectrum. A stone that transmits the entire spectrum of the visible range appears colorless, while it absorbs the entire spectrum - black. If a stone reflects only the red part, and absorbs the rest of the spectrum, then it is red, etc.

The color of gemstones depends on the lighting, as the spectra of solar and artificial light have some differences. Chameleon stones, for example, alexandrite, are the most pronounced color change under different lighting conditions.

Transparency

Transparency is understood as the ability of a solid to transmit light rays through itself to one degree or another. Transparency depends on the degree of perfection of the crystal structure, the presence or absence of cracks, solid and gas-liquid inclusions larger than the wavelength of the incident light, which distort the path of rays through the stone. If the inclusions are large, the stone becomes opaque.

Transparency is determined visually when viewed through transmission or experimentally. Quantitatively, the degree of transparency, that is, the magnitude of the transparency coefficient and the absorption coefficient, can be established using spectrophotometers.

According to the degree of transparency, gemstones are divided into:

Transparent - all colorless and lightly colored, through the plates (3-5 mm thick) of which the object is clearly visible;

Translucent, through the plates of which objects are not clearly visible;

Translucent in thin layers;

Opaque.

Shine

Gloss characterizes the reflectivity of the surface of a mineral and depends on the refractive index and the nature of the surface of the stone.

The following terms are used to describe gloss:

Diamond - with strong reflection of light from the surface (diamond, zircon, demantoid);

Glassy - glassy luster (typical for most transparent gems, for example, corundum, beryl, topaz, tourmaline);

Wax - with an almost matte surface (turquoise, jade, coral, jasper);

Bold - the surface of talc and jade;

Metallic - strong luster of the surface of opaque minerals (pyrite, hematite);

Mother-of-pearl - shine of pearl shells;

Resinous - shine of amber;

Silky - shine from a fibrous surface (selenite, some varieties of calcite).

Hardness

Hardness is the resistance of materials to local plastic deformation that occurs when a harder body (indenter) is introduced into it. Most often for minerals, it is measured on the Mohs relative hardness scale. As standards of hardness in this scale, 10 minerals are used, which have their own hardness, evaluated in points (table).

Mohs hardness scale

Any gem may be left with a scratch made by a mineral whose hardness is higher on the Mohs scale.

Density

The density of a substance is determined by its mass per unit volume and is related to the packing density of the atoms or molecules of the substance.

The values ​​of hardness and density of various minerals are presented in table.

Density and hardness of jewelry stones

Name	Density, g / cm 3	Hardness (Mohs)
Aventurine
Aquamarine
Alexandrite
Diamond
Demantoid
Pearl black
Obsidian

Refraction

Refraction is a change in the direction of light rays when they pass (at an angle other than 90 °) through the interface between two media (for example, air and mineral) with different optical characteristics. The greater the difference in the optical densities of the media, the more the rays are refracted.

A stick, half-dipped into the water at an angle other than 90 °, "breaks" at the surface of the water, that is, its lower part gets a different direction. The degree of refraction of crystals is a constant value, therefore it serves as one of the indicators for identifying precious stones. The speed of light in the air is 300,000 km / h. The speed of light in the diamond is -124 120 km / h. Refractive index of a diamond (300,000 / 124,120) = 2.417. Refractive indices of gemstones range from 1.4 to 3.2.

The refractive index is measured with a refractometer. The principle of operation of the device is based on the phenomenon of total internal reflection of light when it passes from a denser to a less dense medium. Knowing the refractive index of the table-prism on which the sample under study is located, and by measuring the critical angle at which total internal reflection begins, the refractive index of the sample is determined. Refractometers usually have a transparent measuring scale visible through the eyepiece of the instrument, which is graduated in refractive index values. One part of the scale, on which the reflected rays fall, looks lit, the rest is darkened. The refractive index is read from the position of the edge of the shadow on the scale.

Single refractive crystals are called isotropic. These include diamond, spinel, garnets.

Birefringence

Birefringence of light is the decomposition of a light beam entering a crystal into two refracted rays with different refractive indices. The difference between these indicators characterizes birefringence - one of the indicators of crystal diagnostics.

Double refraction is most pronounced in calcite, zircon, tourmaline, and peridot. If the minerals mentioned above are transparent - birefringence - facet doubling can be observed with the naked eye - when viewing the edges of the lower facets of a cut crystal through a table.

Dispersion

The colored components of a white ray of light (red, orange and others) have different wavelengths and are refracted in different ways in minerals, since they have different refractive indices. A measure of dispersion is the difference between the refractive indices for the two selected wavelengths, one of which corresponds to red (687 nm) and the other to violet (430.8 nm).

In practice, it is not the absolute value of the dispersion of refractive indices that is most often determined, but the so-called dispersion effect, that is, the color play of cut stones, which is established visually.

Strong dispersion is typical for a limited number of precious stones (diamond, demantoid, zircon). For example, a diamond with a strong dispersion creates a play of light - "brilliant fire". Minerals, which, like diamond, have high dispersion rates (zircon) are used as substitutes for diamond, since visually not everyone can distinguish the “brilliant fire” of zircon from the “brilliant fire” of diamond.

Pleochroism

When light passes through birefringent minerals, its selective absorption is possible, i.e., a difference in the color of the mineral is observed. The property of some gems to different absorption of each of the two refracted rays is called pleochroism. In uniaxial crystals, two colors can be observed - and then they speak of dichroism, and in biaxial three colors - trichroism. The instrument for observing pleochroism is a dichroscope.

Since pleochroism occurs only in colored birefringent crystals, this feature makes it possible to distinguish anisotropic from isotropic crystals (ruby from pyrope and almandine). Sometimes pleochroism creates additional attractiveness by bringing two and three colors to the area (table) of a faceted crystal.

Luminescence

Luminescence is the ability of certain minerals to emit light as a result of exposure to certain types of energy.

After a substance acquires an excess of energy through irradiation, it can emit so-called "cold" radiation, which is often a characteristic feature of a particular substance. Of the many types of luminescence, the most used in gemology is photoluminescence, which occurs when a substance acquires energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation (for example, visible light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays). Some gems exhibit luminescence when irradiated with short wavelength or long wavelength light.

When irradiated with ultraviolet rays, the so-called fluorescence occurs (the name is associated with the mineral fluorite, in which the effect of glow in ultraviolet rays was first discovered). Fluorescence allows you to distinguish natural stones from synthetic ones that react to ultraviolet rays in a different way.

Luminescence from X-rays can distinguish natural pearls (non-luminescent) from freshwater pearls, which are highly luminous.

Using the effect of luminescence, it is possible to determine the place of extraction of the mineral. One and the same mineral mined in one deposit is luminescent, mined in another does not.

Play of light in minerals

The optical effect caused by the reflection of light rays from the inner surfaces of the crystal is called the play of light.

Let's consider three types of light play: iridescence, asterism and iridescence.

The iridescence is due to the reflection of light from inclusions located parallel to the inside of the mineral: asbestos or crocidolite. Iridescence is well observed when the mineral is illuminated by the rays of the sun or directed beams of an electric lamp, when the mineral is processed with a cabochon (dome-shaped processing of the mineral) or a bead. The effect is manifested in the form of a luminous strip that flickers when the mineral is turned. Quartz minerals are iridescent, while, depending on the color of the base (color of the stone), there are: cat's, falcon's, tiger's and bull's eyes.

Cat's eye is a quartz of green, gray, greenish-gray color with an iridescent effect. The largest deposits of the cat's eye are located in Sri Lanka, India, in the Urals near the city of Zlatoust.

Hawkeye is a dark blue or light blue quartz with crocidolite inclusions. Hawkeye deposits are located in South Africa.

Tiger's eye - golden-yellow or brown quartz with inclusions of goethite. Deposits of the tiger's eye are located in South Africa, Burma, India, Austria.

Bullseye - red quartz with an iridescent effect. Bull's eye deposits are located in South Africa.

Many minerals can have an iridescent effect, among them: emerald, garnet, tourmaline, zircon, chrysoberyl (cymophane).

Asterism is caused by the accumulation of small fibers or crystals that are oriented along the crystallographic axes, forming two, three or six such directions. When processing a mineral with a cabochon, the effect of a four-, six- and twelve-pointed star is observed, the best effect is observed under sunlight or under directional illumination of an electric lamp. The effect of a four-pointed star (two directions intersect at an angle of 90 °) is observed in Diopside, which is located in Madras (India). Hindus call diopside with asterism effect “Black Star”.

Asterism in diopside is caused by magnetite inclusions. We observe the effect of a six-pointed star (three directions of inclusions intersect at an angle of 60 °) in corundum as a result of inclusions of rutile or hematite. In addition to corundum, asterism is observed in chrysoberyl, spinel, and pomegranate.

It is very rare to find sapphires with a 12-pointed star. One of these sapphires weighing 7.28 carats is in the collection of B. Anderson, author of the book "The Definition of Gems". Recently, a lot of synthetic rubies and sapphires have appeared, artificial sapphires are almost opaque, their star is very clear, it looks like a painted one.

Irisation is an iridescent play of light caused by the interference of light rays that are reflected from densely spaced balls on the surface and inside the mineral. As a result, white light, falling on densely spaced balls, decomposes into a spectrum and is seen as the colors of a rainbow reflected from a mineral. The effect of iridescence is observed in some types of noble opal: white opal - a white base with iridescence, black opal - a dark base with iridescence. The main deposit of noble opal is Australia, which supplies up to 90% of noble opal to the market. Findings of noble opal are known in India, Indonesia, Mexico and Brazil. Small opal deposits in the Russian Federation are located in Kamchatka and Chukotka. Due to its low hardness (5.5-6.5 on the Mohs scale), opal should be protected from shocks, sudden changes in temperature, exposure to abrasive materials, cleaned only in soapy water, steam and ultrasonic treatment are unacceptable.

When determining chemical indicators, the chemical composition of the mineral, the presence and chemical composition of various internal inclusions, which can be solid, liquid, gaseous, or combined two- or three-phase, are studied. Usually, certain inclusions are characteristic of minerals of one kind or another, for example, in diamond crystals there are often inclusions of pyrope or graphite, in emeralds there are two-phase gas-liquid inclusions, for the quartz group there are characteristic inclusions of minerals such as hematite, rutile, hotite.

The morphological (crystallographic) indicators include the geometric shape of crystals (cube, prism, pyramid, octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, etc.); ability to twinning; color zoning and crystal growth lines, anisotropy, etc. One of the most important indicators of the structure of a mineral is cleavage.

Cleavage is the property of some crystalline substances to split along certain planes, where there is a weaker chemical bond. Cleavage appears in many gems. Imperfect, weak and perfect cleavage is distinguished. For example, beryl, diamond and topaz, respectively.

Fake, or pseudo cleavage, is the ability of a mineral that does not have cleavage to split in certain areas.

The appearance of false cleavage can be associated with special conditions of the growth of the mineral (for example, for corundum) or with polysynthetic twinning of crystals (for example, Labrador).

Processing of jewelry stones

Historically, nature itself prompted two main types of stone processing - cabochon and cut.

Tumbling is the processing of minerals in a special tumbling drum, where the processed stones are placed, abrasive material and liquid with special shampoos.

The result is a streamlined stone without edges. The minerals obtained as a result of tumbling are called cabochons in jewelry.

Cabochon is a convex (domed) stone without edges. It is produced by grinding and polishing the raw mineral.

By height, cabochons are subdivided into:

Low (d / 2 of the mineral is greater than its height);

Medium (d / 2 of the mineral is close to its height);

High (d / 2 of the mineral is less than its height).

By the shape of the cabochon, they are distinguished into types:

a) flat - dome-shaped on a flat base;

b) biconvex - resemble the shape of an egg;

c) convex-concave - saucer.

The latter type is used when processing translucent minerals, when it is necessary to use the play of light reflected from the thick walls at the top of the mineral and the thin walls of the cabochon at the bottom of it.

Cabochon processed:

1) opaque minerals (turquoise, charoite, rhodonite, malachite, jasper, serpentine, etc.);

2) minerals that are translucent in thin layers (jade, chrysoprase, onyx, agate, etc.);

3) translucent minerals (morion, moonstone, etc.);

4) minerals with the effect:

a) opalescence (noble opals);

b) iridescence (cat, tiger, falcon, bull's eye);

c) asterism (ruby, sapphire, diopside).

Cutting is the processing of natural crystals (cube, octahedron, rhombic dodecahedron, etc.) in the form of polyhedrons.

Each part of the cut stone has its own name.

The middle part of a faceted stone is called a girdle, which is a belt covering the largest section of the stone's circumference and dividing it into upper and lower parts. The word "girdle" (meaning "circle") originated in the cutting industry since the use of a roughing machine, which made it possible to give a diamond workpiece a round shape. The girdle height determines the quality of the cut. For example, high-quality full-cut diamonds should have a thin, uniform girdle (up to 1.5% of the diamond's diameter); medium-cut diamonds - a thicker girdle (up to 3% of the diameter), and finally, low-quality diamonds can have a girdle thickness of up to 6.5% of the diameter. The girdle plane is usually called the plane passing through the center line of the cylindrical part of the girdle and bounded by a circle, the diameter of which determines the diameter of the faceted stone. This diameter serves as the initial value for calculating all the main cut elements (heights of the middle, upper and lower parts, size of the site).

The shape and size of the girdle determines the shape and size of the cut stone.

Platform - the upper face, located perpendicular to the axis of the stone, has the shape of a regular octagon and is designed to catch the light falling on the upper part of the diamond and reflect the outgoing light flux.

The upper part - the crown, is located between the girdle section plane and the upper edge of the platform. The height of the crown of a faceted stone is determined by the distance from the plane of the girdle to the platform.

On the upper part (in the crown) of a full-cut diamond, in addition to a platform with three belts, there are 32 facets - parts of a flat surface bounded by a closed broken line (edges).

The bottom of the faceted stone is called the pavilion. On the first belt from the girdle there are 16 triangular-shaped pavilion faces, called bottom wedges. On the second, there are 8 deltoid-shaped faces.

The edges of the bottom are brought together to a point called a diamond spike. In some cases, the tenon can be sheared off to form a plane called a culet that runs parallel to the pad and follows its shape. The centers of the platform, girdle and culet planes should lie on the axis of symmetry of the faceted stone.

In most jewelry, the bottom of the stone is set in a setting, and therefore, no light falls directly on the edge of the bottom, but they play a major role in reflecting the light passing through the crown. Light passing through the landing and the main edges of the top is completely reflected from the edges of the bottom and, after refraction, exits through the main edges of the top and the platform.

All the variety of cuts can be divided into traditional, fancy and mixed.

Assortment of traditional cuts

Diamond tip. The cut is based on grinding and polishing the natural facets of the polyhedron, including the octahedron.

Diamond table. With the development of diamond processing technologies, it becomes possible to obtain additional facets. For example, in a diamond table cut, the upper apex of the octahedron is cut parallel to the girdle plane and forms a table (platform). The lower apex is ground until a culet is formed - a small plane, also parallel to the girdle.

Eight cut. Over time, more complex forms appear. In a figure-eight cut (Kr-17), not only the upper and lower vertices of the octahedron are ground, but also its lateral faces. Thus, an 8-sided table is obtained, surrounded by eight 4-sided crown faces; the pavilion consists of 8 triangular faces that converge to one point, called a thorn. The thorn can be ground off, forming an additional face parallel to the girdle plane - culet (Kr-18). This form is used for small diamonds, for inexpensive natural stones, as well as a variety of imitations.

The Swiss brilliant cut is also used for small stones (0.01 to 0.05 carats). It is a sophisticated figure eight cut. The table is surrounded by eight edges, and the crown has eight additional bottom edges. The pavilion has 16 faces.

A full brilliant cut, in which the stone has 57 (58) facets, including a table, a crown - 32 facets, a pavilion - 24 facets, is most applicable for medium and large transparent stones. The platform has the shape of an octahedron. The edges of the bottom converge to a point called a thorn. Sometimes the thorn is cut off and then a plane is formed that repeats the shape of the platform and is parallel to it, which is called the culet - the 58th face. This type of cut is the most common for medium to large diamonds. It is also widely used for cutting colored precious and semi-precious stones and their synthetic counterparts.

With regard to a round diamond, M. Tolkovsky developed a brilliant cut that best emphasizes the natural beauty of the crystal, which is called the classic (or ideal) cut of M. Tolkovsky.

M. Tolkovsky established that in order to obtain the greatest brilliance and "play" of a round diamond, the cutting should be performed in such a way that the optical properties of the diamonds were maximally manifested. For this purpose, the following rules must be observed:

1) the angle of inclination of the edges of the bottom β should be such that the light falling on the platform and the main edges of the top is completely reflected from the edges of the bottom. In this case, the angle of incidence of the light beam φ on the inner edges of the bottom will be more than 24.8 degrees (that is, more than the critical angle of the diamond);

2) the angle of inclination of the main facets of the top α should be such that the light reflected inside the diamond falls on the facets of the top at an angle γ, less than the critical one, and after refraction the light leaves the crown of the diamond.

In accordance with these rules, M. Tolkovsky calculated the ratio of the sizes of different parts of a cut diamond. So, if the diameter of the girdle is taken as 100%, then to obtain the required angles, the diameter of the platform should be 53%, the height of the crown - 16.2%, the height of the girdle - 1-2%, the height of the pavilion - 43.1%. This type of cut is most widespread in the United States.

Currently, there are other calculated ideal cuts: Diamonds cut by Epler, Johnson and Röch, Parker, Scandinavian brilliant cut. The parameters of ideal cuts are presented in the table.

Table

The main parameters of ideal cuts

Round brilliant-cut diamonds have the highest value, since only if the ideal proportions based on the physical and optical laws of reflection and refraction of light in the crystal are precisely observed when cutting, the stone acquires maximum sparkle and play.

However, the costs of producing diamonds ideal views cuts are maximum. Since natural crystals in most cases do not have an ideal shape and proportions, a lot of waste is generated during manufacture.

Practical brilliant cut allows the most efficient use of rough diamonds due to a wider range of geometric parameter tolerances. Tolerances for parameters of practical cuts differ in standards different countries, and in addition, depend on the size of the stone and the requirements for cutting by specific cutting enterprises or customers, or the requirements established in specific contracts. The most beautiful practical cut is the Russian diamond cut, known all over the world under the Russian cut brand. The main cutting parameters: girdle diameter 100%, table diameter 50-65%, crown height 10-16%, pavilion depth 40-45%, crown slope 30-40 °, pavilion 38-43 °.

In addition to round cuts, the traditional ones include step cuts: baguette and emerald. These cuts are for delicate gems.

The baguette cut table has the shape of a square or rectangle, from which the edges of the crown, bounded by a girdle, are located. The sides of the pavilion are also arranged in steps of 4 on each tier. The edges of the pavilion can converge at one point and form a spike or end with a culet. The emerald cut has an octagonal table (baguette with cut corners). Further, the faces of the crown and pavilion are located in the same way as in the baguette, in steps, but with eight facets on each tier.

Assortment of fancy cuts

All types of fancy cuts can be divided into 2 large groups: mass (popular) and exclusive. The range of popular fancy cuts and their quality requirements are well known. These types of cuts are made by various Russian and foreign cutting enterprises. The exclusive types of cuts include cuts created in each specific case individually at a particular enterprise. The goals of creating these or those exclusive fancy cuts may vary. It may be a desire to make the stone more expensive by increasing the yield, suitable for cutting. It may be a desire to expand the range of faceted inserts produced. However, more often than not, exclusive fancy cuts are developed at the request of the client for a specific piece of jewelry or a specific stone.

Popular types of fancy cuts include such well-known shapes as marquise, oval, triangle, trilliant, princess, heart and some others, as well as derivatives of cuts from full brilliant and step cuts.

When fancy cutting, the shape of the girdle of the stone changes, the number of facets increases or decreases, the angles of inclination of the faces of the crown and pavilion to the girdle. This is due to at least two reasons:

The need to maximize the use of natural raw materials, which, by their size or defects, do not fit into the parameters of traditional cuts;

The consumer's desire to have a gem with an original cut. This desire is often driven by the fashion for one or another type of fancy cut.

The full brilliant cut has evolved into the following fancy cuts.

1. Diamond cut ELBA. With this type of cut, the stone has a full brilliant 58-sided shape, but the facets are also applied to the surface of the girdle.

2. Royal cut - octagonal cut. The base is a full brilliant cut, but instead of an octagonal table there is a twelve-sided one; the facets are arranged as follows - 49 facets of the crown (1, 12, 12, 24) and 36 facets of the pavilion (24, 12) plus the culet.

3. Magna Cut (or Majestic) - consists of 102 facets. The basis is a ten-sided table, the facets are arranged in the following order - 61 facets of the crown (1, 10, 20, 20, 10) and 61 facets of the pavilion (10, 20, 20, 10, 1). Stones cut with this type of cut have a very high luster.

4. Imperial cut - unpaired cut. Designed by Maxim Elbe (Hamburg, Germany). Has an unpaired number of corners of the site (9, 11 or 13), and, accordingly, an unpaired number of facets on each step of the crown and pavilion. For example - 37 faces of the crown (1, 9, 9, 18) and 27 faces of the pavilion (18, 9). This cut provides 23-30% more intense brilliant "play" than a full brilliant cut.

5. Antique cut, or cushion. The cut is square or rectangular in girdle with rounded tops, has an octagonal platform and four levels of crown faces with 8 facets. Antique cuts are one of the earliest cuts used for diamonds. This cut allows you to minimize the amount of waste and, therefore, get a cut diamond of a larger weight. It was very often used in the cutting of Brazilian diamonds.

The wedge cut (cross) is a derivative of the stepped shapes. This modification of the emerald cut has a quadrangular table, around which triangular faces are located in three tiers. The wedge cut is used to enhance the color of the stone.

Also a derivative of the cut from the stepped shapes is the Princess cut. It has a quadrangular platform, the edges of the crown in the form of triangular and quadrangular facets and the edges of the pavilion in the form of many narrow wedges, diverging from the spike to the corners of the girdle. The number of these wedges determines the Princess cut. For example, "Smolenskiy Kristall" produces the following princess cut types: P-53, P-57, P-65, P-73, that is, with the number of faces - 53, 57, 65 and 73.

For the manufacture of profile cutting, thin plates are used, with a thickness of 1 to 2-3 millimeters. These plates can be cut from crystal debris, raw materials with common internal defects that need to be cut, and cutting waste. The use of this type of cutting allows enterprises to use raw materials as efficiently as possible. The upper plane of the cut plate is polished, and a series of V-shaped parallel grooves is applied to the lower one, which create the "play" of the mineral. According to the girdle, such a plate can have a wide variety of shapes, but the most popular is the "heart" shape.

Rose cut. The faceting assumes a flat base and a dome of two or more rows of triangular facets, without forming a table. First appeared in India. The classic Indian version has 3 tiers and 24 facets of the dome. Currently on the market you can find several varieties of rose cuts. For example, LLC "Smolensk Gemological Center" developed a sixty-sided six-tiered version of this cut with the trade name "Rose-cabochon sixty-sided".

In addition to the usual types of fancy cuts discussed above, there are rare exclusive types. Such cuts, as already mentioned, are developed at a specific cutting enterprise, sometimes such a cut is performed by a single master. It also happens that one or another type of cut is developed at the request of the client for a specific product or for a specific stone - and then the cut exists in a single copy. Thus, this or that type of exclusive fancy cut will always be associated with a specific manufacturer or a specific product.

As an example of an assortment of exclusive fancy cuts, you can consider several cuts developed at Smolensk Gemological Center LLC and manufactured at OJSC Production Association Kristall: Zvezda cut BZ-41, Happy cut X-65, Phoenix cut ", Cut" Fire rose sixty-sided "and others.

Technical requirements for fancy-cut diamonds, as a rule, are developed by each individual enterprise and presented in the form of technological maps. Technological map contains an image general view a diamond of a certain cut in three (less often in two) projections and the main dimensions of the cut stone. The nomenclature of dimensional indicators will, of course, depend on the specific type of cut, but the main ones include: A - the total length of the cut stone; B is the total width; α and β - respectively, the angles of inclination of the faces of the crown and pavilion of the girdle plane; b p is the size of the area of ​​the diamond diameter in% to the girdle diameter; hr - girdle height in% of the diamond diameter. The card may contain requirements for different groups of cut quality (A, B and C), then the quality group will be shown in the top line, as, for example, in table.

Technological map for fancy diamonds "Oval" (for example, Ov-57)

Group	Parameters of diamond A			B
n = A / B	1,20-1,80
Weight, s	up to 0.49	0,50-0,99	from 1.00	from 0.10
bр,%	55- 65	55- 65	55-65	55- 65
hr,%	1,5-3,0	0,7-2,5	0,7-2,5	0,7-3,0
α, deg.	30-35	30-35	30-36	30-36
β, deg.	39-42	39-42	39-42	39—42

Mixed cuts In the process of cutting stones, various combinations of the above types of both traditional and fancy types of cutting of minerals are possible, that is, when the crown and pavilion are processed using different types of cutting (or processing). The most common use for colored stones is the brilliant-cut crown and fancy cuts of the pavilion, or the crown and pavilion are cut with different types of fancy cuts. An example of such a mixed cut is the Ceylon cut, which consists of a fancy-cut crown (a modification from a full brilliant cut) and a checkerboard-cut pavilion (a fancy stepped cut). Mixed cutting is possible, in which the crown is cut with a cabochon, and the pavilion is cut with a step cut.

Mixed cuts are widely used for colored transparent precious and semi-precious stones such as almandines, heliodors, grossulars, rubies, sapphires, tourmalines, spinels, etc.

The Year of the Yellow Earth Pig or Boar 2019 begins on February 5, 2019.The color of the Boar and the Pig is considered to be red - therefore, red (the boar and Pig mascot), black (like the black soil of Ukraine, the CIS), brown and golden will be popular as the talismans of 2019 (like the color of the earth) and green stones (Boar and Pig live in the forest in greenery). Year of expensive and valuable stones - red ruby, yellow sapphire, red-brown zircon, green emerald and jade as the stone of the Chinese emperors, stones of bacon and bacon color. The Pig's methods of work are hard work and caution, secrecy and perseverance as a means of achieving progress, a year of money. Boar and Pig are animal symbols of Ukraine and the CIS. Year of the Yellow Earth Pig or Boar 2019 - the year of valuable stones, burshtin amber, Volyn polychrome and wine topazes, jaspilites as a black and red symbol of the earth, pyrites and pyrrhotite in morion, golden agates, green and brownish-golden opals, raukhkvarts and morions , pegmatites of Volyn, stones in the rock, etc. Talismans of 2019 - trees of happiness from stones for contemplation, a year of meditation. The final year of 12 animal symbols according to the Eastern calendar is similar to the previous year of the Earth Dog.

The Year of the White Mouse and the Rat and as a symbol of the year Metal begins on January 25, 2020 and symbolizes the new cycle of the Eastern New Year, a symbol of renewal and change. The accumulation of treasure and money is a special feature of 2020. A year of hard work, determined and a little pedantic work. A year of fun and poise, work on the ground. Stores and a symbol of finding stones and minerals, which in 2020 have an outstanding design and an unusual natural color. A year in which you cannot deny yourself anything and prepare for it in advance. Uncommon and rare stones and minerals. Also the year of products with metal and stones and minerals similar to metal - labrador, moonstone adularia, kyanite, sapphire, citrine, quartz-hairs, hematite, red and hematite jasper and jaspilite, pyrite, druses of stones and minerals, gray and golden similar on metal agates, golden and reddish carnelians and sardines, milky-white agates like silver, milky quartz, bluish stones and minerals, non-toxic metal ores. Minerals with a grainy texture and reminiscent of the grain that mice love are popular this year. The green and golden-green color of the stone will remain popular - meadows and fields where mice and rats like to live.

Animal mascot 2019, animal symbols - the eastern year of the Yellow Earth Pig and Boar

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Candlesticks and souvenirs :: Happiness tree stones :: January 02, 2019

The site received stone souvenirs made for the Year of the Yellow Earth Pig or Boar 2019.By 2019, the Yellow Earth Pig or Boar as animal symbols of the year living in the forest, a collection of inexpensive trees of happiness made of natural stones, including rare and exclusive in vases made of natural marble onyx, decorative souvenirs made of natural stone on jewelry wire. Stones - rock crystal, citrine, green quartz, rhodonite, jasper, coral, shells and mother of pearl in the collection. Decorative and can act as a Feng Shui souvenir for contemplation. Transparent stones shine in the sun, matte stones retain their color like gems. Work under the order is possible. The price of the products is affordable.

The world's largest stones (unofficial)

On July 9, 2001, the largest single piece of emerald ever found was discovered in Brazil, South America. The stone was named "Bahia Emerald". Its weight is about 380 kilograms (1.9 million carats). Now the price of the stone is $ 900 million. Consultation of specialists from the Russian Federation (CIS), Ural is required.

In July 1992, the largest jadeite (similar to jade) was discovered in Canada (North America) by a man named Max Rosequist. He found a single jade lens weighing 577 tons. Now the stone is in the Yukon Jad company. The stone cutting industry in China (Asia) is engaged in stone processing.

The world's largest amber (fossil tree resin) was found in Myanmar (formerly Burma, a region of China and Tibet in southeast Asia). The stone was named "Burmese amber". Its weight is 15.25 kilograms. The stone is in the Natural History Museum in London, Britain (EU). Plots of Hollywood films with Van Damme. Competence of the Baltic States (CIS).

In the 80s of the XX century, the largest topaz (gem) was discovered in Brazil (South America). Untreated, the stone weighed 11 kg. Cutting the topaz took over two years. As a result, the jeweler has a gem with 172 facets with almost flawless transparency, shimmering light brown. Now the stone is called "American Gold Topaz" and weighs 4.5785 kg, which is equivalent to 22 892.5 carats. Consultation of specialists is required from Zhytomyr region, western Ukraine (CIS), Volodarsk-Volyn pegmatites.

On May 7, 1934, the largest pearl in the world was discovered by a pearl diver on the Philippine island of Palawan (southeast Asia). The pearl of Lao Tzu, or as it is more often called, the pearl of Allah, weighs 6.37 kilograms and is 24 cm long, 14 cm wide, 15 cm high. It is interesting that the pearl has an uneven shape and is mottled with lines, resembling a human brain. It was formed by a giant bivalve shell, a little more than a meter long. The value of the pearl is at around $ 40 million. The plot of the famous book "The Hound of the Baskerville" (baboon monkey in the British private household) and the Pacific epic of Jack London (books). Also advises Japan and China.

In July 1989, the largest white opal in the world (cacholong, special storage conditions - moistened with water) was found in South Australia (the Femiston Open area). The opal weighs 5.27 kilograms (26 350 carats). South Australia is the region of the best opals and the richest kimberlite pipes. The unusual stone was named "Jupiter-5". Consultation of a specialist in meteorites, fireballs and asteroids is required (radio telescope, Kharkov region, Ukraine, CIS). Opal is held by a private person.

In 2005, the XXI century in Tanzania (East Africa, Indian Ocean) found the largest tanzanite (blue zoisite, silicates). Its weight was 3.36 kilograms (16,839 carats) and dimensions - 220 mm x 80 mm x 70 mm. The stone was named "Mavenzi", as well as the second largest peak of the volcanic massif Kilimanjaro (volcano of Tanzania, Africa). This precious transparent stone with blue-violet tints is extremely rare in nature. Reminiscent of alexandrite and amethyst (pleochroism).

In June 1989, the largest sapphire (corundum, alumina) was found in the mountains of North Carolina (USA, North America). The valuable rare stone weighs 2 kilograms (9,719 carats). The blue star sapphire asterix has been dubbed the "Lone Star". The stone was processed in London, UK (EU), after which Roper collected it. The plot of the film "The Matrix" (gems ​​in the USA, stones are searched through Chile - South America).

The world's largest agate (colored with layers and patterns of chalcedony, cryptocrystalline silicon oxide - quartz) was found in the oldest city in Germany (EU) Trier in the 4th century AD. NS. It is a flat dish with a diameter of 75 cm. The stone is now kept in the Museum of Art History in the capital of Austria (EU), Vienna.

At the end of 1988, the Niilanjali ruby ​​(red corundum) was discovered, which is the rarest ruby ​​in the world. A double 12-pointed star is visible on the surface of a ruby, which makes it 4 times more expensive than ordinary rubies (rutile inclusions, twin of a ruby ​​crystal). In addition, the weight of the ruby ​​itself is 300 grams (1,370 carats). At the moment, the stone is in the possession of the Indian lawyer Vidyarazh. The cost of such a rare ruby ​​is $ 100 million.

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  Catalog of blue and dark blue stones

  Agate	Azurite	Aquamarine	Apatite
  Turquoise	Howlite, Kaulite	Dumortierite	Lapis lazuli
  Sapphire	Sodalite	Topaz	Celestine (poison + radiation)

  Catalog of popular stones of the quartz group

  Catalog of original stones and minerals

  Halite (poison !!)	Morion	Pyrite	Stavrolite

  Properties of stones and minerals - catalog of stones

  Precious: Diamond *** Demantoid ** Emerald ** organic:

  Semi-precious: Ulexite * * Chrysoprase ** organic:

  Ornamental: organic: Jet (coal) * *

  Original: Flint * * Morion ** Orthoclase, microcline ** Pegmatite ** Pyrite * * fossils: Simbircite ** Shungite * * dangerous: Cinnabar ** Conichalcite ** Celestine * *

  Very similar stones and stones - "deceivers"

  Stones by typical color

  Red pink Orange yellow Pyrite * *

  green Demantoid ** Emerald ** Conichalcite ** blue Celestine * * blue

  Violet Charoite ** Brown Flint * * Labrador ** multicolor Agate *** Flint * * Kunzite ** Onyx marble. **

  black Jet (coal) * * Labrador ** Shungite * * White Orthoclase, microcline ** grey Labrador ** Pegmatite ** colorless Diamond ***

  Website home page Zodiacs, horoscopes of stones Treatment: Lithotherapy The magical properties of the stone Free download books

  All about precious stones World minerals catalog Everything about popular stones » gems » semiprecious stones » semi-precious stones » original stones Gem deposits

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  Online store, sale of souvenirs and accessories, friendly site » Sale of souvenirs, leather handbags, beads, rosary, wood products, bronze » Belts, handbags, leather, original and rare accessories modern clothes » Bracelets, earrings, rings, "Dreamcatcher", pendants, handmade souvenirs » Selling skulls, tails, beads, necklaces, handmade cards

  Poisonous and radioactive hazardous stones and minerals

  ** - poisonous stones and minerals (mandatory check in the chemical laboratory+ clear indication of toxicity)
  ** - radioactive stones and minerals (mandatory check on a standard dosimeter+ ban on open sales in case of radioactivity over 24 milliroentgen / hour + additional measures to protect the population)
  ** - stones and minerals, dangerous mechanical body damage
  All rare stones are subject to mandatory checks on a standard dosimeter for an acceptable level of radiation and in a chemical laboratory for the absence of toxic and volatile components and fragments that are mechanically dangerous for humans and the environment.

  Arsenolite ** Arsenopyrite ** Orpiment ** Beryl ** Betafit ** Billietitis **

  Gadolinite ** Halite * * Carnotite **

  Cinnabar ** Otenit ** , torburnite **

  Realgar ** Strontianite * * Thorianite **

  Thorite ** Uraninite ** Celestine * * Zircon ** Euxenit ** Eshinit **

  • Download the article Highly hazardous and potentially hazardous stones and minerals in lithotherapy, with photos, 2010, PDF, 2.80 Mb in criminal and "clandestine" "lithotherapy".)

  Scientific articles and materials scientific author K.305(Ukraine, Kharkiv city) can be officially ordered at the address: st. Cooperative, 13, Kharkiv, UA-61003, Ukraine (act.code Room 305 2009-2019, Kharkiv, Ukraine, passport citizens of Ukraine MM670618, was born on September 18, 1970 and permanently lives in the city of Kharkov, Ukraine, in 1994 she graduated from the MMF KhNU im. V.N. Karazin, diploma KZ N 002101, Department of Mathematical Physics, Applied Department of Mechanics and Mathematics Faculty of KhNU from 1989 to 1994, Ukraine, Kharkov, certificate R N 586275 about the end of school N 9, Kharkov, 1987 - in a girl. Kanunikova Yu.V. until November 22, 2000, Dzerzhinsky district of the city of Kharkov). I love classic hard rock and heavy metal ().

  In 2009-2019 from the Kharkiv Ukrainian scientific author Room 305 the following editions came out:
  UDC 531.0 BBK 22.311 K.305 part 1"Bessel functions and cylindrical functions in an elementary presentation with computation programs", 2009, Kharkov
  UDC 531.0 BBK 22.311 K.305"Special functions of mathematical physics", part 3"Modeling of anomalous and extraordinary natural and technogenic processes", 2009, Kharkov
  "Everything about stones and minerals. Magical and medicinal properties stones ", 2009, Kharkov
  Annex 1 To UDC 549: 291.33 BBK 86.41: 26.31 K.305"Contact and non-contact lithotherapy", 2009-2019, Kharkov (with the author's video of 2010 for a computer)
  Appendix 2 To UDC 549: 291.33 BBK 86.41: 26.31 K.305"Magnetotherapy and treatment with magnets", 2009-2019, Kharkov (with the author's video of 2010 for a computer)
  ISBN 966-7343-29-5 K.305, 1994-1999, Kharkov. The edition of the author K.305 "Recurrent relations for solutions of differential equations of the second order", restored in 2010 by the author of K.305 (copyright protection of the thesis MMF 1994 by the author Room 305, officially carried out personally by the author in 2010 - seizure of the unauthorized third party illegitimate "left" LBC code, illegally introduced in 1999)
  Other scientific and popularizing materials of the Kharkov scientific author Room 305(Ukraine) for the period 2009-2019 and earlier can be ordered in Kharkiv Universal Scientific Library at the address: st. Cooperative, 13, Kharkiv, UA-61003, Ukraine. The author constantly lives and works in the city of Kharkov (Ukraine).

  
  
  

  Yu.V. Kaftanova
  К.305 All about stones and minerals. Magic and healing properties of stones. Popular science edition. - Kh .: PE Publishing House "Novoe Slovo", 2009. - 264 p. ISBN 978-966-2046-92-2
  Registration of the author K.305 in the information system ORCID 0000-0003-4306-1738
  Designed not only for mineralogists, but also for a wide range of trained readers.
  2008-2019. Yulia Kaftanova, P.O. Box 10911, Kharkiv, UA-61003, Ukraine, mob. Tel. +38 050 0463643

  Free download exercises with magnets, shaded palettes, 30.0 Mb, UDC 549: 291.33 BBK 86.41: 26.31 by scientific author K.305 Ukraine in the author's K.305 performance Free download hand exercises, shaded palettes, 20.4 Mb, UDC 549: 291.33 BBK 86.41: 26.31 by scientific author K.305 Ukraine in the author's K.305 performance Free download exercises with balls, shaded palettes, 16.2 Mb, UDC 549: 291.33 BBK 86.41: 26.31 by scientific author K.305 Ukraine in the author's K.305 performance Free Download Intimate Trainers, shaded palettes, 7.61 Mb, UDC 549: 291,33 BBK 86.41: 26.31 by scientific author K.305 Ukraine in the author's K.305 performance

  Contact and non-contact lithotherapy(Appendix) Illustrated supplement to the basic edition. Pocket format, can be downloaded and printed for personal use, 340 photos, 160 colors. pages. Described main types of massagers, massage techniques jade massagers, druses, balls, eggs and crystals, including the author's one. The history of reflexology and contact lithotherapy. Reflexology. Point massage with crystals. Druze massage with the effect of Kuznetsov's iplicator. Intimate massage and its features. Treatment with water, magnets, magnetotherapy are typical mistakes and delusions. Complexes of therapeutic exercises, including for rehabilitation and prevention. 340 photos with work diagrams. You can download a b / w printer, .pdf 25.9 Mb or rar-unpacking archive RGB color photos, free book download, .pdf 29.8 Mb or archive

  Yu.V. Kaftanov. All about stones and minerals Magic and healing properties of stones(basic edition) In a book written incl. From my website about stones and minerals, historical views on the magical properties of the more popular 100 stones are popularly described. Zodiacs. Horoscopes. Briefly about lithotherapy. Methods for refining stones, incl. dangerous. Convenient pocket format, 264 b / w pages. The final part is designed for specialists - mineralogists, geologists, physicists, applied mathematicians. In a very accessible language with illustrations, it is described modern mathematical model of crystal growth traditional and cryptocrystalline forms (crystallography), illustrative illustrations and definitions are given, modern physics of the process is presented. I suggest free book download, pdf, 16.9 Mb or archive

  Yu.V. Kaftanov. All about stones and minerals Magnetotherapy and magnet therapy(Appendix) Illustrated supplement to the basic edition. Pocket format, can be downloaded and printed for personal use, 320 photos, 160 colors. pages. Outlines exercises and massage techniques with therapeutic magnets and overview of the physics of the magnetic field. It tells how magnets are treated, what extrasensory influences and a magnetic field are - "a psychic to himself." Health Ball Exercises. Magnetic trainers and massagers. Briefly about the use of magnets in engineering, about their reaming and about patenting. The most typical mistakes and misconceptions archive, 241 Mb Exhibition and sale of products of masters of Ukraine !! Sculptor-jeweler Alexander STEPANENKO Master Alexander Stepanenko(Ukraine, Kharkov) has been professionally working on carving from mammoth ivory (mammoth bone) since 1974. His works are widely known in the CIS. Exclusive jewelry and women's jewelry from mammoth ivory. Netsuke, okimono, figurines and miniatures of elephants, mammoths, various animals and exotic creatures from mammoth tusk, exceptional in beauty, originality and handwriting of the author. We remind- almost all natural minerals and crystals are with inclusions, cracks and veils, many natural stones are opaque or partially translucent, have irregularities and defects in color, natural cracks, inclusions (inclusions) and irregularities in shape. Many stones value their special structure with a reasonable minimum of processing or a unique color. This in no way speaks of their "danger" or "unsuitability" for lithotherapy, jewelry or craft needs - ONLY radioactive and poisonous stones (especially soluble imitating stones) are very dangerous and unsuitable for use, even if they look visually attractive ... Ideal transparency in 99.97% of cases indicates a fake - "ideally" -clean and transparent gemstone raw materials are actively used in industry and production today, and small and inexpensive products (rare) can be made from its waste. Glass and composite glass materials are the most common, convenient and objectively inexpensive and practical material for counterfeiting and imitation stones, especially clean and transparent or with bright and catchy effects. Buy natural or don't overpay for glass and other synthetic materials that also cost money (malachite, turquoise, cat's eye, aventurine with sparkles, rhinestones drilled from colored, colorless or tinted glass, etc.) !!! All colorless and colored imitators of high-value jewelry raw materials (industrial pure quartz, cubic zirconia, synthetic corundum, garnets, etc.) should be subject to the state monopoly. No stones drilled through should be used in industrial jewelry- exist effective methods setting stones not drilled through. Complete prohibition of use must be subject to all undrilled through cut rhinestones and any imitations of glass, including colored glass imitations of stones, including cut (facets, cabochons and fancy cutting), any complex stones using glass and stones refined using glass , because they are the most favorite weapon of scammers and swindlers. Attention - subject to mandatory licensing sale, exchange and other operations with jewelry and other items made of precious metals from one piece with a production test and an industrial pinning mark from one piece or more (except for the purchase by individuals as end consumers of items in any quantity for personal use). All jewelry is required to have an official seal with a seal with a label affixed ONLY on a probing wire(threads, fishing line and other non-standard materials are prohibited for jewelry). Any parts, fasteners, wire, grain and other components of jewelry made of any materials are not sampled, provided that they will be used by third parties for products that are not strictly licensed (responsibility for their use lies entirely with third parties). The affixing of standard stamping marks to any non-standard products (including small batches) and registration of an article for them is prohibited (protection of these products is carried out on the basis of the Law on the Protection of Copyright without Patenting, including through the departments and registers of craftsmen). Any operations with precious stones are subject to licensing. both separately (from one piece and above), and in any products (both individual and industrial and production) in a standard machine cut, which strictly meet the requirements of official technical standards: they must be no less than the size specified in GOST, TU and other official instructions, strictly from the gemstone raw materials described in these instructions, not have cracks and inclusions visible to the eye (under a 10x magnifying glass), be uniformly colored ( opals, ulexites, chalcedony, jade, adularia and other matte stones with a cryptocrystalline structure) or purely transparent and monochromatic (defect-free diamonds, topazes, rubies, sapphires, aquamarines, amethysts, citrines and other transparent "canonical" crystals with a pronounced crystal lattice ). The seller does not have the right to refuse to the buyer the legitimate sale of the product if it is licensed and branded, and also does not have the right to refuse the legal sale of any licensed stone with a certificate of conformity. All licensed stones, sampled precious metals and licensed gemstones must be diagnosed by hardware with almost 99.7% accuracy, any doubts about the diagnosis(including expert ones) require these stones and metals to be excluded from the licensed list, since the product may turn out to be undiagnosed. Diagnosis objectively is very expensive and is a strictly necessary condition for licensing activities in the market of precious stones and precious metals. Using simple peer review"by eye" for ANY licensed standard cut gemstones and licensed gemstones without standardized laboratory research methods is prohibited... It is also forbidden to put test marks on precious metals without their hardware laboratory diagnostics. On any bone, leather, food, wool, earth, products made of clay and similar materials, wood, stones, glass, money, paper, paints, nuggets, monuments, copper, bronze, brass, non-jewelry alloys, banking and industrial metals and alloys , living objects, illiquid assets, waste and similar materials (including composite, thin, too small, especially large and not subject to a license) pinning marks are never put. It is forbidden to sell and exchange any stones and any products with them (especially with stamped assay marks) with the use and indication of a license, if these stones and products not subject to standards and licensing requirements and they are not satisfied (this can be interpreted as deliberate misrepresentation and fraud). A complete and reliable indication of the use of all refining methods for licensed stones and products is strictly mandatory (for ordinary stones, ordinary and routine expert checks and standard state checks for radioactivity and the absence of poisons in stones are sufficient). Storage conditions dredges and dredges - a specialized high-security safe with an alarm and a button brought to the central police station or a licensed security structure. The condition for the sale and purchase is a guarded room with an alarm and a button displayed on the central control panel. An up-to-date inventory of licensed stones and products is strictly required. It is desirable to have insurance (both the seller and the client). All safe (i.e. non-toxic, insoluble in water with the formation of toxic compounds, non-vaporizing with the formation of poisonous vapors and gases and non-radioactive) turbid and fractured stones of any chemical composition and crystal structure, all stones with veils, bubbles, cracks, color transitions and patterns (especially pronounced), too small, flat or very tall, very large or obviously irregular in shape, any processed stones of obviously asymmetrical shape, all stones with visible defects in cutting and even without cutting (not falling under the category "raw materials for a standard cut "), all stones with obvious visible traces of the enclosing rock, all stones drilled out for beads, all chemically and physically (including radiation) safe for health and life industrial waste and" selection "and other illiquid gemstone waste NOT SUBJECT TO LICENSING... They can go on sale, be bought out by private individuals and used in any other non-illegal way. in limited quantities(including imitation faceted and other cut, as well as drilled with a through hole) and be in non-serial, "non-standard" and "experimental" products (especially handmade or in small batches, in educational and student works, etc.) from any unproven metals, provided that these products do not bear standard PRODUCTION and INDUSTRIAL assay marks !!! Their sealing is allowed. The sellers of such stones and products with them are not responsible for the presence in these stones of structural features and defects that are visible to the eye, safe for human life and health, if the stones were mined, processed, if necessary, delivered, customs cleared, donated, transferred or sold legally. At the same time, in jewelry and similar practice and in the work of craftsmen, it is not customary to use readily soluble and evaporating stones, as well as very soft and losing color stones, simply for reasons common sense, rationality and expediency (such stones are usually worn for reasons of originality, extravagance and other internal motives). For all non-standard stones, standard certificates of conformity for raw materials and faceted precious stones are not issued - it is only possible to conduct a gemological examination on a commercial basis, as well as the issuance of a written or written expert opinion (without the use of devices), the reliability of which is usually does not exceed 92-97% and is often in the range of 75-80%. In this case, the buyer has the right to refuse the purchase, and the seller - from the sale in case of ANY doubts. The seller also has the right to use any trade and common names for stones. provided that the price is not increased on stones and products. The seller has the right to admit that he does not know the correct name of a specific stone, cannot determine it or doubts about a particular stone, even if he is a professional geologist or mineralogist - it is desirable that at least 75% of the gemstone assortment is correctly diagnosed. No license required !!! Any safe stones, metals and their alloys used by humans as jewelry are not licensed if they are not raw materials for the jewelry and cutting industry and do not meet strict state standards, which can be found at official state production facilities and in specialized state educational institutions. which train cutters and jewelers. These standards exist, are written on paper and are comprehensive. Raw materials for standard licensed cutting are not used raw materials extracted from dumps, by the artisanal method in a non-prohibited place in an unauthorized manner, provided that ALL cutting raw materials are obligatory delivered to state collection points in full at state prices. Gemstone and other industrial wastes (including quartz, corundum, cubic zirconia, carborundum, carbonado, etc.) are illiquid and therefore cannot be used for standard licensed industrial cutting and jewelry production. All semi-precious stones are recyclable in full, including all production wastes (dust, chips, non-standards, etc.). It is forbidden to reduce the cost of stones in the process of their processing, regardless of the presence or absence of a license and the desire of the cutters - scientific goals and state economic and political goals are fundamental and primary. priorities of Ukraine. If non-counterfeit metals for products are not assayed by state brands and are non-toxic and non-radioactive, sellers and owners are not responsible for their chemical composition, its compliance or non-compliance with the requirements of state standards, provided that these metals are not objects of state monopoly (for example, especially valuable rare land, science-intensive or potentially hazardous isotopes of any chemical elements). The seller is obliged to warn the buyer at his request that these products made of non-counterfeit metals are not tested and are not subject to industrial and production assaying, since standard samples and brands are not established for any non-standard alloys and native metals. It is prohibited to install precious stones that meet any standards in such products. Rhinestones of any origin and glass imitations of precious stones are not recommended for aesthetic reasons. Forbidden embed in licensed jewelry bearing an industrial assay mark, stones and minerals that are not covered by a gem license. In particular, it is forbidden to insert into industrial products made of gold, silver and platinum (even made in a single copy) any stones that do not meet the standards of jewelry raw materials and cut and do not fall under a state license - this is interpreted as cheating the buyer, which means fraud ... For example, it is forbidden to install any non-standard stones and even precious stones (sapphires, rubies, emeralds and diamonds) of objectively different shades in one piece of jewelry or in their set (earrings, headsets, etc.), if this is accompanied by the placement of a stamping stamp. The brand can only be installed on finished jewelry with precious stones that strictly comply with state standards. Otherwise, it is forbidden to establish a stamp and probing. It is forbidden to use any non-standard methods of setting gemstones in products with stamping marks (innovative setting of stones or an innovative type of cutting is first subject to a preliminary application for standardization, patented, and only then put into production on the basis of a patent on invention and documents on the adoption of these standards by the state). Any stones (including diamonds, sapphires, emeralds and other stones of natural and synthetic origin and refined), extracted from any jewelry and other items(from new, used, manufactured or stored), "automatically" are considered used, defective (illiquid) and cannot be reused in ANY production cycle, even if they do not have defects visible to the eye or they have been reworked and re-polished (the issuance of any used stones, especially from the licensed category, for new ones in any licensed product in any form falls under the category of "fraud"). It does not matter how the sale, exchange or barter transactions with licensed products and stones are carried out - from one piece, "in bulk" or in the size of any consignment - through warehouses, dispatches, manufactures, shops, pawnshops, exhibitions, "from hands", "out of the box" or through any internet sites, as these operations are a STRICTLY licensed activity. All are licensed warehousing and storage services licensed stones and licensed products that are not in the possession of the end consumer, from one piece, up to a state monopoly (for example, the state reserve, state funds and customs warehouses), and any storage of these products is performed as safe custody with a mandatory state assessment and inventory, regardless of the purpose storage (including storage for the purpose of transportation and delivery of the specified products from one piece and above). Sale of licensed products without a license by individuals and other persons from one piece or more (up to a consignment or "in bulk", including used or stored) is possible only through a system of certified pawnshops and collection points licensed to purchase these products (including to the state reserve and other responsible funds and authorized officials who appoint mandatory state and other independent examination of the product, set the purchase price and may refuse to purchase the product at any preliminary stage without collateral). Licensed operations and even objects of state monopoly are any operations with all potentially and really dangerous stones and areas that may be radioactive (check for radioactivity in state metrology must be performed), there are poisonous soluble primis or restrictions on use (mandatory special warnings in the instructions, labeling and color of the package), are poisonous, hazardous vapors, hazardous solutions and other compounds hazardous to the life and health of biological individuals are formed. For example, the fumes of sulfurous sources are dangerous, blue celestine is dangerous if it is not used for the needs of crystallography and is mistakenly used in lithotherapy for infusing water (a water-soluble strontium compound is a doublet combination of poison and radiation with isotopes difficult to remove from the body). Red cinnabar, a soluble compound of mercury, is dangerous, and silver arsenopyrite, a dangerous compound of arsenic (especially for children). Dangerous poisonous green conichalcite, all arsenates and arsenides. Many zircons are radioactive and dangerous, especially those with a damaged crystal lattice and rare earths (purchased only for scientific purposes). Do not irradiate beryl heliodores containing uranium isotopes. Charoite and eudialyte are dangerous, containing rare earths in high concentrations (they need to be checked on standard dosimeters). Especially dangerous are the ores of uranium, thorium and other metals used for "nuclear" devices and reactors, scientific purposes and other needs of the state monopoly. Professional activity without a documented profession (especially requiring higher and especially scientific education) is prohibited in Ukraine and can be interpreted as fraud. State of Ukraine actively and realistically takes care of the life, health and safety of citizens, having the necessary legislative base, state apparatus, law enforcement, metrological, scientific and other structures. Since 2010 in Ukraine any science and scientific research are objects state monopoly.

At all times of the existence of civilizations on Earth, the list of which always consisted of many items, were a sign of wealth. They personified the presence of a high social status. Hundreds of years ago, in some countries there was a law according to which precious jewelry could only be worn by persons of the ruling elite. Today, if a family has a list of gems, then they are wealthy and prestigious.

Russia is a leading country in the sale and production of such precious stones. Here, a huge amount of stones are produced for the manufacture of jewelry. Gemstones are mainly used:

• rubies;
• diamonds;
• emeralds.

The laws of the Russian Federation clearly and strictly regulate the production and sale of jewelry stones and products.

Existing classification of gemstones

The variety of precious stones made it necessary to start their classification. They are classified into several types.

Gems are natural gemstones that make up the first type:

• alexandrite;
• Emerald;
• chrysoberyl;
• euclase;
• ruby;
• diamond;
• sapphire;
• noble spinel.

The list of the second group includes varieties of gems:

• topaz;
• heliodor;
• vorobievite;
• beryl;
• aquamarine;
• tourmaline (various colors);
• zircon;
• amethyst;
• phenakite;
• opal;
• hyacinth.

The third included:

• amber;
• cornelian;
• jet;
• turquoise;
• chrysoprase;
• rauchtopaz;
• rhinestone;
• bloodstone.

Colored minerals and their features

First grade:

• malachite;
• nephritis;
• lapis lazuli;
• amazonite;
• rhodonite;
• aventurine;
• granite
• chalcedony;
• Labrador.

The second class includes minerals, the characteristics of which are somewhat different from the rest:

• agalmatolite;
• ophiocalcite;
• selenite;
• jasper;
• meerschaum;
• fluorite.

What is the household classification?

This list refers to a simplified classification. This catalog contains precious and semi-precious ornamental stones. They come in several varieties.

• ruby;
• sapphire;
• alexandrite;
• diamond;
• chrysoberyl;
• opal;
• Emerald;
• euclase;
• spinel.

• topaz;
• aquamarine;
• red tourmaline;
• phenakite:
• beryl;
• demantoid;
• opal;
• blood amethyst;
• almandine;
• hyacinth;
• zircon.

The list of semi-precious stones includes:

• Garnet;
• dioptase;
• turquoise;
• epidol;
• tourmaline;
• rhinestone;
• rauchtopaz;
• chalcedony;
• Labrador;
• amethyst.

Gemstones have always been distinguished by their expressiveness. These minerals include:

• nephritis;
• lapis lazuli;
• amazonite;
• jasper;
• spar;
• Labrador;
• quartz;
• vesuvian;
• bloodstone,
• nacre;
• jet;
• amber;
• corals.

Stones for jewelry

They have many different classifications. For work, only certain precious and ornamental stones are taken. They are easy to process, and it is easy to make all kinds of jewelry items from them.

Mineral raw materials are classified according to a number of characteristic features:

• origin;
• chemical composition;
• crystal cell;
• dimensions.

For the first time in 1860, a German scientist compiled a classification of gemstones. He created a directory that included several classes and groups.

The first had three subclasses. The first included:

• diamond;
• spinel;
• chrysoberyl;
• corundum.

The second included:

• tourmaline;
• Garnet;
• zircon;
• topaz;
• opal;
• beryl.

The third class of steel includes:

• kpanit;
• axinite;
• cordierite;
• chrysolite;
• vesuvian;
• staurolite;
• andalusite;
• turquoise;
• epidote;
• xpastolite.

The second group also has two subclasses.

First subclass:

• chalcedony;
• quartz;
• feldspar;
• lapis lazuli;
• amber;
• fluorite;
• diopside;
• obsidian.

Second subclass:

• hematite;
• rhodochrositis;
• pyrite;
• malachite;
• alabaster;
• selenite;
• marble;
• spar;
• agalmatolite;
• serpentine;
• nephritis;
• jade.

In 1896, an updated classification of gemstones was proposed. It was taken as a basis and became popular among jewelers. Later it was supplemented by Academician Fersman. According to this catalog, the division of jewelry stones took place. They were divided into:

• gems;
• jewelry semi-precious stones of different colors;
• natural;
• precious;
• just ornamental.

At the end of the 19th century, the catalog of minerals consisted of 750 species. Today the list has increased. It now contains 3,000 different types of minerals. Progress does not stand still, everything goes forward, new species open up.

However, with all the abundance of precious and jewelry and ornamental items, there are about 100. And only professional craftsmen can name such a number. Ordinary people know about 25 names of jewelry items.

Minerals without which jewelry crafts are impossible

To create beautiful decoration or an expensive piece of jewelry, professionals use:

• gems;
• colored stones;
• artificial minerals.

Gems mean certain types of stones:

• ornamental;
• mountain;
• colored;
• precious;
• semi-precious.

Each stone has characteristic properties:

• transparency;
• resistance to aggressive environments;
• bright color;
• beautiful shine;
• light scattering;
• the possibility of affordable processing.

The most popular gems used for the production of most jewelry are precious minerals. Jewelers most often use emerald, ruby, diamond and sapphire.

Of all the semi-precious stones available, the craftsmen use opal, topaz, alexandrite and rock crystal.

These stones have a unique play of light color, they are easy to process and cut. They are used to make inserts in various types of jewelry, rings and other products in which precious stones are used.

For thousands of years, certain groups of minerals, considered gemstones, have always been valued. They have always been in high demand. It is from them that jewelers make jewelry and luxury products. Such stones include:

• turquoise;
• Garnet;
• quartz;
• chalcedony;
• jade;
• olivine;
• amethyst;
• centrite;
• amazonite;
• Moonstone;
• nephritis;
• tourmaline;
• lapis lazuli;
• spannel.

Gems tend to be slightly translucent, sometimes they are completely opaque.

The gems contain minerals that give them a beautiful shade. For example, malachite has in green... This color is given by 57% copper oxide.

The hardness of ornamental elements is divided by professionals into several groups.
The hardest are:

• charoite;
• nephritis;
• chalcedony;
• jasper;
• lapis lazuli;
• rhodonite;
• agate.

Ornamental stones of medium hardness include marble, malachite and serpentine.

The softest steel:

• selenite;
• anhydrite;
• calcite;
• gypsum;
• talcochlorite;
• alabaster.

Famous jewelry semi-precious stones

Today, many different artificial stones have appeared. They perfectly imitate natural gems. Of course, you need to be able to distinguish ordinary glass from a natural semi-precious mineral. To do this, you must, first of all, know how real jewelry and ornamental items look like.

This is usually a completely opaque mineral, rock, or organic compound. A semi-precious stone is always without shine. However, if it receives a high-quality cut, its beauty will not be inferior to an expensive diamond. Very rare stones are priced expensive, the cost is measured in six figures. The weight of such an original is determined by the carats.

Semi-precious stones have special physical characteristics. They can be easily distinguished by measuring their density, hardness and cleavage.

The most important difference between these gems is a huge range of colors and numerous shades. Such a variety was provided by the chemical composition given by nature. They contain various oxides of iron, aluminum, magnesium, sodium, copper and even potassium.

These oxides give the minerals the most unique shades. Such gems are used as inserts required in chic jewelry, as well as raw materials for interior decoration.

Ornamental stones are also divided into several groups. It all depends on the value of the mineral. So there are several groups.

• rauchtopaz:
• crystal;
• amber;
• malachite;
• jade;
• lapis lazuli;
• aventurine;
• charoite.

• chalcedony;
• agate;
• amazonite;
• hematite;
• rhodonite;
• heliotrope;
• opal;
• Labrador;
• quartz;
• obsidian.

• jasper;
• marble;
• jet;
• fluorite.

Sometimes ornamental stones belonging to the first group are considered precious gems of the third order.

There are several classifications of gemstones, based on such characteristics as the hardness or light scattering of the stone, the composition of the mineral, crystallographic features, and the prevalence in nature. That is why the division into precious and stones is very arbitrary.

For the first time, the division into types of precious stones was proposed by M. Bauer in 1896. Later, many scientists, including A. E. Fersman and V. I. Sobolevsky, turned to the improvement of this issue.

It is customary to divide jewelry stones into three types: precious, semi-precious and semi-precious.

Gems

Precious stones are minerals that are distinguished by their special brilliance, beauty and play of color, or strength and hardness, and which are used as jewelry.

According to a simplified classification, the first grade gemstones are: diamond, sapphire, chrysoberyl, ruby, emerald, alexandrite, spinel, lal, euclase.

The second grade of precious stones is: topaz, aquamarine, red, phenakite, demantoid, blood, hyacinth, opal, almandine, zircon.

Diamond and brilliant are one stone, which is a type of crystalline carbon. The first name denotes a stone in its natural form, and the second - with a cut.

There are no such terms as semi-precious and ornamental stones, since they differ from precious stones only in their wider prevalence and less pronounced properties, which is reflected in the price of products with them.

Among the semiprecious stones are: garnet, epidote, turquoise, dioptase, green and variegated tourmalines, rock crystal, chalcedony, light amethyst, sun and moonstone, labrador.

Ornamental (semi-precious) stones include: jade, bloodstone, lapis lazuli, amazonite, lower quality labrador, varieties of spar and jasper, smoky and rose quartz, vesuvman, jet, corals, amber, mother-of-pearl.

Modern classification of gemstones

Professional jewelers and mineralogists consider the best and most modern classification proposed by Professor E.Ya. Kievlenko.

The first group includes jewelry (other synonymous names are cut, precious) stones:

Diamond, blue sapphire, emerald, ruby, constituting the first class;

Alexandrite, orange, yellow, violet and green sapphire, noble jadeite, noble black opal, which are included in the second class;

Demantoid, noble spinel, aquamarine, topaz, rhodolite, noble white and fire opal, red tourmaline, moonstone (adularia), which represent the third class;

Blue, green, pink and polychrome tourmaline, turquoise, chrysolite, noble spodumene (kunzite, hiddenite), zircon, yellow, green, golden and pink beryl, pyrope, almandine, amethyst, citrine, chrysolite, chrysoprase, which the scientist attributed to the fourth class ...

The second group classifies ornamental, or stone-cut, stones:

Rauchtopaz, amber-succinite, hematite-bloodstone, jadeite, rock crystal, lapis lazuli, malachite, nephrite, aventurine, belonging to the first class;

Agate, cacholong, colored chalcedony, amazonite, heliotrope, rhodonite, rose quartz, iridescent obsidian, labradorite, ordinary opal, belomorite and other opaque iridescent spars, which make up the second class.

The third group is represented by decorative and facing stones, among which: jasper, written granite, marble onyx, petrified wood, listvenite, jet, jaspilite, obsidian, selenite, aventurine quartzite, fluorite, agalmatolite, colored marble, patterned flint.